Spinale Angiographie

Spinal angiography is a diagnostic modality requiring detailed knowledge of spinal vascular anatomy. The cervical spinal cord is supplied by the vertebral arteries while segmental arteries which are preserved from fetal anatomy, supply the thoracic and lumbar regions. As spinal angiography carries the risk of paraplegia the indications have to be considered very carefully. Nevertheless, spinal angiography should be performed if there is reason to suspect a spinal vascular malformation from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).     

Spinale intradurale Tumore

Zusammenfassung Spinale intradurale Tumore sind seltene Läsionen, sie können jedoch eine erhebliche Morbidität verursachen. In der Differenzialdiagnose spielen die Lokalisation, das Alter sowie die Symptomatik des Patienten eine wichtige Rolle. Die Magnetresonanztomographie ist die wichtigste bildgebende Methode. Tumore können in der MRT einfach als extradural, intradural-extramedullär oder intramedullär erkannt werden. In diesem Beitrag werden intradurale Tumore getrennt in intradural-extramedullär und intramedullär beschrieben. Intradural-extramedullär treten Tumore der Nervenhüllen als häufigste Entität auf. Intramedulläre Tumore sind sehr selten wobei Ependymome und Astrozytome am häufigsten gefunden werden. Die typische Bildgebung dieser Tumore wird in diesem Beitrag besprochen.     

Spinale Metastasierung bei malignen Gliomen

Purpose

Extracranial metastases of malignant gliomas are rare. We report 2 cases with spinal metastases in patients suffering from glioma.

Patients and Method

Two patients (33 and 57 years old) developed spinal canal metastases of a glioblastoma multiforme and anaplastic astrocytoma Grade III respectively 25 and 9 months after surgical resection and radiotherapy. Both metastases were confirmed pathohistologically.

Results

Intraspinal metastases were irradiated with a total dose of 12.6 Gy and 50 Gy. Treatment withdrawal was necessary in one patient due to reduced clinical condition. Regression of neurological symptoms was observed in the second patient.

Conclusions

Spinal spread of malignant glioma should be considered during care and follow-up in glioma patients with spinal symptoms.     

Spinale durale arteriovenöse Fisteln

The spinal dural arteriovenous fistula (SDAVF) is an important cause of a slowly progressive sensorimotor transverse lesion in mostly elderly patients. The disease affects men in 80% of the cases. Per year and per 1 Million inhabitants only 5-10 new cases of the disease have to be expected. Although rare, the serious disease should not be missed. Diagnosis can be made by MRI and spinal angiography. The result of treatment depends on early diagnosis. The arteriovenous shunt is located within the dural layer of the spinal canal. It connects branches of a radiculomeningeal artery with the veins of the spinal cord. Spinal cord supplying vessels are not primarily involved. Arterialisation of the venous part of the spinal cord circulation results in a chronic congestive myelopathy, which can well be demonstrated by MR imaging. The role of selectice spinal angiography is to detect and exactly localize the site of the avshunt, which is rather difficult in some cases. Therapeutic alternatives are effective embolization of the fistula with liquid agents or surgical disconnection.     

Infratentorielle Tumoren

This article gives an overview concerning the typical infratentorial tumors of adults.     

Extradurale Tumoren

Approximately 50-60% of spinal tumors are extradural and depending on the origin and location are classified into tumors of the vertebrae, tumors of the epidural space and primarily extraspinal tumors growing into the spine. Presenting complaints include back pain and weakness as well as myelopathy and radiculopathy due to compression of the spinal cord or the nerve roots, respectively. Imaging of extradural tumors mostly requires both magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT). Extradural masses and infiltration of the cord can be depicted by MRI and CT depicts osteolytic and osteosclerotic lesions and the extent of osseous involvement. Bone scintigraphy is often helpful in detecting metastases and characterizing osteoid osteomas.     

Supratentorielle Tumoren

Magnetic resonance imaging is a routine diagnostic measure for a suspected intracerebral mass. Computed tomography is usually also indicated. Further diagnostic procedures as well as the interpretation of the findings vary depending on the tumor location. This contribution discusses the symptoms and diagnostics for supratentorial tumors separated in relation to their intra- or extracranial location. Supratentorial tumors include astrocytoma, differentiated by their circumscribed and diffuse growth, ganglioglioma, ependyoma, neurocytoma, primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNET), oligodendroglioma, dysem-bryoplastic neuroepithelial tumors (DNET), meningoangiomatosis, pineal tumors, hamatoma, lymphoma, craniopharyngeoma and metastases. The supratentorial extracranial tumors include the choroid plexus, colloid cysts, meningeoma, infantile myofibromatosis and lipoma. The most common sub-forms, especially of astrocytoma, will also be presented.     

Endokrine Tumoren

The term endocrine tumor incorporates all neoplasms which originate from the various endocrine organs. Endocrine tumors can be characterized by different criteria: localization, endocrine function, dignity (i.e. tumorigenesis, sporadic or hereditary). These characteristics also determine the clinical outcome. The clinical history, symptoms and physical examination findings (e.g. amenorrhea, skin alterations, striae, virilization, increased blood pressure and flush) direct the diagnostic process of functioning endocrine tumors. Laboratory findings (endocrine parameters) are needed to establish a diagnosis supplemented by imaging for localization and special investigations (ophthalmological examination). In hereditary tumor syndromes, the familial history and molecular genetic testing and screening of family members are essential for establishing the diagnosis and achieve optimal and early treatment. Ideally, affected family members can be treated before clinical symptoms or metastatic disease occurs, improving outcome and prognosis. Incidentalomas are increasingly found due to widespread use of imaging techniques, especially in the thyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas and pituitary gland. In incidentalomas the functional status and risk of malignancy has to be evaluated as both parameters determine therapy decisions. The aim of this introductory article is to give an overview about particular features of endocrine tumors, clinical and related aspects for the diagnostic and therapeutic approach. The clinical features of tumors of the pituitary, parathyroid and adrenal glands and the gastroenteropancreatic system are summarized according to localization.     

Orbitale Tumoren

Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging are the modalities of choice in the assessment of orbital neoplasms. Careful interpretation of the characteristic radiological features usually leads to the correct diagnosis; however, some of the lesions look very similar and are difficult to differentiate from each other. This contribution provides an overview of tumors of the eye and orbit and their appearance on CT and magnetic resonance imaging.     

Nephrogene Tumoren

Nephroblastomas are the most common malignant renal tumors in childhood. According to the guidelines of the SIOP (Société Internationale d’Oncologie Pédiatrique) and GPOH (Gesellschaft für Pädiatrische Onkologie und Hämatologie) pre-operative chemotherapy can be started without histological confirmation and thus initial imaging studies, in particular ultrasound, play an outstanding role for diagnostic purposes.     

Tumoren der Sellaregion

Because of the complex anatomy, examination of the sella turcica and hypophysis needs a dedicated MR sequence protocol. Not every sellar lesion is a pituitary adenoma. Thus, this review article summarizes the most frequently encountered intra-, supra-, and parasellar tumors and lesions. Differential diagnoses comprise besides adenoma among others craniopharyngioma, meningioma, glioma, germinoma, hamartoma, aneurysm, trigeminal schwannoma, pituitary carcinoma, chordoma, metastasis, infection, and empty sella. Characteristic imaging findings are presented and correlated to micro- and macro-pathology.     

Gastroenteropankreatische endokrine Tumoren

Clinical/methodical issue

Gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (GEP-NET) are a rare, heterogeneous group of neoplasms. Only 2?% of gastrointestinal tumors belong to the group of neuroendocrine neoplasms.

Standard radiological methods

A wide spectrum of diagnostic imaging modalities is available: apart from ultrasound not only computed tomography (CT) but also magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography CT (PET-CT) play an important role in detection and staging of GEP-NETs.

Methodical innovations

The PET-CT technique with somatostatin analogues is used for staging as well as for evaluation and monitoring of treatment with peptide radionuclide radiation therapy.

Performance

According to the literature NETs of the small bowel with a size over 3 cm can be detected with a sensitivity of 84.7?% and a specificity of 96.6?% using CT enteroclysis and MR enteroclysis provides the detection of NETs of the small bowel in 93.3?% of cases. ’The sensitivity of MRI in detection of pancreatic NETs is between 74?% and 100?% and is, therefore, higher than CT. Detection of small primary tumors is carried out using PET-CT and seems to be the most sensitive imaging modality to identify the exact location. On the other hand MRI has to be regarded as the best imaging modality for detection of liver metastases compared to CT and PET-CT.

Achievements

The role of diagnostic imaging is to identify the exact location of the primary tumor and possible metastases, to define an appropriate therapy and to monitor treatment effects; however, the choice of the most appropriate diagnostic imaging modality varies depending on the location and type of the primary tumor.

Practical recommendations

The GEP-NETs are predominantly well-vascularized; therefore, dual-phase CT/MR imaging with the arterial and venous phases after contrast media injection is mandatory for detection and localization of primary tumors and metastases. For whole body staging CT and PET-CT should be performed.     

Tumoren der Sellaregion

Tumors of the pituitary gland can lead to limitation of hypophysis function (hypophysis insufficiency) or hypersecretion of different hormones (acromegaly, Cushing’s syndrome, prolactinoma, TSH-secreting adenoma). The optic chiasma lies in close proximity to the pituitary gland and can be compressed by tumors leading to visual disturbances (bilateral hemianopsia). Tumors can be separated into hormone secreting and hormone inactive tumors, as well as into microadenoma with a diameter <10 mm and macroadenomas >10 mm. A rare group of tumors of the hypophysis region are craniopharyngiomas, meningiomas, germinomas, gliomas, metastases and granulomotous inflammations, such as sarcoidosis and tuberculosis.     

Tumoren der Nebennieren

Clinical/methodical issue

Adrenal masses are very common and are usually detected incidentally. Less frequently, imaging is performed for the localization of the underlying lesion in the case of endocrine disease. The differentiation between adenomas and non-adenomas is fundamental.

Methodical innovations

Adenomas show a low density on unenhanced computed tomography (CT) and a rapid washout of contrast agents. In magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) adenomas are characterized by a low signal in opposed phase imaging as compared to in phase imaging.

Performance

According to the literature a density of less than 10 HU in an adrenal mass has a specificity of 98?% and a sensitivity of 71?% for the presence of an adenoma and MRI is slightly more sensitive. Some adrenal lesions, e.g. cysts or myelolipomas can be diagnosed with high accuracy due to pathognomonic findings.

Achievements

In the majority of cases the synopsis of imaging along with clinical and laboratory findings is necessary for a reliable diagnosis.

Practical recommendations

For the evaluation of an adrenal mass the CT examination should begin with an unenhanced scan, if necessary followed by a washout examination. In the case of MRI in phase and opposed phase imaging are essential components of the examination.     

Differenzialdiagnose spinaler Tumoren

A wide variety of degenerative, inflammatory and vascular diseases can resemble the clinical presentation and imaging findings of spinal tumors. This article provides an overview of the most frequent diseases which are important to recognize for diagnostic imaging of the spine.