Management of displaced ankle fractures

BACKGROUND: Ankle fractures excluding pilon fractures, account for approximately 9% of all fractures with the majority being OTA type B injuries. Although surgeons generally treat undisplaced or minimally displaced injuries nonoperatively and displaced fractures operatively, opinions diverge regarding the management of those displaced fractures with acceptable closed reduction. There is also debate about the use of biodegradable implants in operatively managed ankle fractures, the type and technique of fixation for operatively treated syndesmotic injuries as well as the approach to postoperative rehabilitation. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to review the highest level of available evidence on the operative management of ankle fractures. We focused specifically on studies comparing (1) nonoperative versus operative management of displaced ankle fractures, (2) biodegradable versus metal implants, (3) syndesmotic fixation, and (4) postoperative rehabilitation protocols.     

Talus- und Kalkaneusfrakturen

The treatment of displaced fractures of the talus and calcaneus is associated with a considerable learning curve. Malunion results in significant limitations of global foot function and painful posttraumatic arthritis. While early reduction of dislocations and fracture dislocations represent an emergency situation, the timing of definitive fixation has no measurable impact on the results and the incidence of avascular necrosis in central fractures of the talus. For internal fixation of displaced fractures with central comminution or medial joint impaction, anatomically shaped interlocking plates are available in addition to screws. The ideal treatment of displaced intra-articular calcaneal fractures is still controversial. Because of the variable fracture patterns and the vulnerable soft tissue cover, an individual treatment concept is advisable. In order to minimize the wound margin necrosis associated with extensile lateral approaches, selected fractures should be treated with less invasive fixation while controlling joint reduction via a sinus tarsi approach. Fixation in these cases is achieved with screws, intramedullary locking nails or modified plates that are inserted subcutaneously. Displaced extra-articular and simple intra-articular fractures can be reduced and fixed percutaneously. Functional aftertreatment aims at early rehabilitation independent of the kind of fixation. Peripheral fractures of the talus and calcaneus frequently result from subluxation and dislocation at the subtalar and Chopart's joints. They are still regularly overlooked and result in painful arthritis if left untreated. If an exact anatomical reduction of these intra-articular fractures is impossible, resection of small fragments is indicated.     

Biodegradable fixation of ankle fractures. Complications in a prospective study of 25 cases.

In a prospective study, 25 displaced ankle fractures were treated with one or two biodegradable rods (Biofix), sizes 3.2 or 4.5 mm. In 2 cases the medial malleolus fractured during drilling. At the 1-year follow-up of 22 cases, the following complications had occurred: sinus formation in 1 case and osteolysis corresponding to the fracture line and/or drill channels in 9 cases, 2 of whom had symptoms. 2 patients had been reoperated on, one for pseudarthrosis and another for secondary fracture displacement. Because of the high complication rate and the unknown importance of osteolysis formation, we cannot recommend biodegradable fixation with rods of 3.2 or 4.5 mm length as a supplement to the treatment of displaced ankle fractures, particularly of medial fractures.     

Talus fractures: evaluation and treatment

Fractures of the talus are uncommon. The relative infrequency of these injuries in part accounts for the lack of useful and objective data to guide treatment. The integrity of the talus is critical to normal function of the ankle, subtalar, and transverse tarsal joints. Injuries to the head, neck, or body of the talus can interfere with normal coupled motion of these joints and result in permanent pain, loss of motion, and deformity. Outcomes vary widely and are related to the degree of initial fracture displacement. Nondisplaced fractures have a favorable outcome in most cases. Failure to recognize fracture displacement (even when minimal) can lead to undertreatment and poor outcomes. The accuracy of closed reduction of displaced talar neck fractures can be very difficult to assess. Operative treatment should, therefore, be considered for all displaced fractures. Osteonecrosis and malunion are common complications, and prompt and accurate reduction minimizes their incidence and severity. The use of titanium screws for fixation permits magnetic resonance imaging, which may allow earlier assessment of osteonecrosis; however, further investigation is necessary to determine the clinical utility of this information. Unrecognized medial talar neck comminution can lead to varus malunion and a supination deformity with decreased range of motion of the subtalar joint. Combined anteromedial and anterolateral exposure of talar neck fractures can help ensure anatomic reduction. Posttraumatic hindfoot arthrosis has been reported to occur in more than 90% of patients with displaced talus fractures. Salvage can be difficult and often necessitates extended arthrodesis procedures.     

Treatment strategy for talus fractures

Fractures of the talus are uncommon, but they present difficult treatment challenges. The classifications of fractures are based on conventional X-rays, but the CT scan is necessary for treatment decisions. Open fractures, displaced fracture dislocations, or extrusion of the talus must be reduced and stabilized as an emergency procedure. In all cases of displaced fractures, ORIF is indicated. The use of standardized approaches depends on the type of fracture and the soft tissue lesion. Precise anatomic reduction of all facets and reconstruction of the shape of the talus and stabilization with interfragmentary lag screws is the method of choice in almost all fractures. This procedure allows early mobilization postoperatively. The outcome is related to the degree of fracture displacement and the soft tissue lesion but may be poor due to inadequate treatment. Talus malunion, nonunion, and secondary deformity should be corrected early with preservation of the joints whenever possible. Arthrodeses should be restricted to the affected joints.     

Therapiestrategie bei Talusfrakturen

Fractures of the talus are uncommon, but they present difficult treatment challenges. The classifications of fractures are based on conventional X-rays, but the CT scan is necessary for treatment decisions. Open fractures, displaced fracture dislocations, or extrusion of the talus must be reduced and stabilized as an emergency procedure. In all cases of displaced fractures, ORIF is indicated. The use of standardized approaches depends on the type of fracture and the soft tissue lesion. Precise anatomic reduction of all facets and reconstruction of the shape of the talus and stabilization with interfragmentary lag screws is the method of choice in almost all fractures. This procedure allows early mobilization postoperatively. The outcome is related to the degree of fracture displacement and the soft tissue lesion but may be poor due to inadequate treatment. Talus malunion, nonunion, and secondary deformity should be corrected early with preservation of the joints whenever possible. Arthrodeses should be restricted to the affected joints.     

Minimal-invasive Osteosynthese

Objective

Minimally invasive osteosynthesis of talar fractures.

Indications

Minimally displaced fractures of the lateral process of the talus and talar neck fractures type?1 according to Hawkins classification.

Contraindications

Dislocated peripheral fractures. Displaced fractures of the talar neck or body.

Surgical technique

For factures of the lateral process of the talus: short incision of skin over the lateral process of the talus. Gentle preparation and contact with the bone with scissors. Fragment reposition using a dentist’s hook and Kirschner wire in a joy-stick technique under C-arm imaging. Stabilization with a miniscrew. For talar neck fracture Hawkins type?1: short incision of skin ventromedially and ventrolaterally. Blunt preparation of soft tissue and safe bone contact. Introduction of one small-fragment corticalis screw both medially and laterally under C-arm imaging. As an alternative, cannulated screws can also be used.

Postoperative management

For fractures of the lateral process of the talus: postoperative protection in an ankle splint (air cast, gel cast) for 4?weeks. During this time moderate weight bearing is possible. For talar neck fractures Hawkins type?1: physiotherapy and only floor contact for 6?weeks.

Results

From January 1996 to December 2002, 44?talar fractures were operatively treated in our department. Six patients had talar neck fractures type?1 according the Hawkins classification and 3?patients showed fractures of the lateral process of the talus. From those injuries, 3?Hawkins type?1 fractures and 2 fractures of the lateral process were stabilized using minimally invasive osteosynthesis. The clinical outcomes were assessed using the Ankle Hindfoot Scale of the American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Society. Both groups reached good cosmetic and functional results. We did not observe any avascular talar necrosis or nonunions in the two groups.     

Open reduction and stable fixation of isolated, displaced talar neck and body fractures

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this retrospective review was to evaluate the long-term results of surgical treatment of isolated, displaced talar neck and/or body fractures with stable internal fixation. METHODS: The study included twenty-five patients with a total of twenty-six displaced fractures isolated to the talus that had been treated with open reduction and stable internal fixation and followed for a minimum of forty-eight months after the injury. The final follow-up examination included standard radiographs, computed tomography, and a clinical evaluation. Variables that were analyzed included wound type, fracture type, Hawkins type, comminution, timing of the surgical intervention, surgical approach, quality of fracture reduction, Hawkins sign, osteonecrosis, union, time to union, posttraumatic arthritis, and the AOFAS scores including subscores (pain, function, and alignment). RESULTS: The average duration of follow-up was seventy-four months. Surgical intervention resulted in sixteen fractures with an anatomic reduction, five with a nearly anatomic reduction, and five with a poor reduction. All eight noncomminuted fractures were anatomically reduced. The overall union rate was 88%. All closed, displaced talar neck fractures healed, regardless of the time delay until surgical intervention. Posttraumatic arthritis of the subtalar joint was the most common finding and was seen in all patients, sixteen of whom had involvement of more than one joint. Osteonecrosis was a common finding, seen after thirteen of the twenty-six fractures overall and after six of the seven open fractures. CONCLUSIONS: Open reduction and internal fixation is recommended for the treatment of displaced talar neck and/or body fractures. A delay in surgical fixation does not appear to affect the outcome, union, or prevalence of osteonecrosis. Posttraumatic arthritis is a more common complication than osteonecrosis following operative treatment. Patients with a displaced fracture of the talus should be counseled that posttraumatic arthritis and chronic pain are expected outcomes even after anatomic reduction and stable fixation. This is especially true following open fractures.     

The key role of the lateral malleolus in displaced fractures of the ankle.

The reason why late degenerative arthritis developed in some patients who had sustained displaced bimalleolar fractures of the ankle was investigated. The roentgenograms indicated that incomplete reduction of the lateral malleolus and a residual talar tilt were present. When bimalleolar fractures were created in cadavera the talus could be anatomically repositioned only when the lateral malleolus was accurately reduced. Fifty-three patients with bimalleolar fractures were treated by anatomically fixing the lateral malleolus with a four-hole plate. There was an anatomical reduction of the talus and medial malleolus in each instance and there were no late cases of degenerative arthritis when these patients were followed for from six months to nine years. We concluded that the lateral malleolus is the key to the anatomical reduction of bimalleolar fractures, because the displacement of the talus faithfully followed that of the lateral malleolus.     

载距突的解剖学研究及其在跟骨关节内移位骨折手术中的应用

目的 通过研究跟骨载距突本身及其与周围组织的解剖学关系来设计内固定的最佳位置和角度. 方法①测量正常跟骨的以下指标:载距突的前倾角、跟骨后关节面前部的前倾角、跟骨中部最大宽度、载距突基底部厚度,②观察跟骨内部结构,⑧研究载距突及其周围结构解剖学,④观察跟骨中部螺钉模拟内固定及测量相关角度,⑤随访观察27例经外侧入路切开复位内固定治疗的跟骨关节内移位骨折患者的效果. 结果载距突的前倾角、跟骨后关节面前部的前倾角、跟骨中部最大宽度、载距突基底部最大及最小厚度分别是50°±5°、69°±5°、(41.75±1.76)mm、(12.14±1.60)mm、(4.81±1.07)mm;载距突中关节面下方的骨小梁结构致密,并且与跟骨后关节面下方的致密骨小梁相连续;载距突与走行于其内侧的肌腱血管关系密切;在冠状面上测量自后关节面到载距突的三个进针点打入克氏针的最佳进针方向分别是:最低点向上25°±5°、最高点向下3°±3°、中点向上13°±3°;根据以上测量值进行手术,无患者出现复位或内固定失败的情况,疗效按照美国足踝外科协会后足评分系统评分,优良率为88.9%. 结论载距突是跟骨关节内移位骨折手术时螺钉置入的理想位置,应根据跟骨中部的横径选择螺钉的长度,根据载距突基底部的最小径选择螺钉的直径,根据载距突与后关节面的相互关系决定螺钉的进钉方向,可以获得满意的临床疗效.     

Pitfalls in the treatment of fractures of the ankle and talus

Displaced fractures of the ankle are a common component of current orthopaedic practice, whereas displaced fractures of the talus are unusual. Ankle fractures generally are produced by indirectly applied, relatively low energy forces, whereas talus fractures are created by higher energy axial loading. Despite these inherent differences, the end result of either injury can be avascular necrosis, posttraumatic arthritis, or soft tissue loss. Complications and poor results can arise from the inherent characteristics of the injury, from failure to accomplish appropriate treatment objectives, from overzealous treatment goals, or from overlooking subtle clinical or radiographic signs. The goal of the current study is to provide a method of evaluating the characteristics of these injuries to optimize functional outcomes and avoid morbidity.     

External rotation and abduction fractures around the ankle joint treated by internal fixing using AO instrumentation

One hundred and three displaced malleolar fractures of the ankle joint were treated by one orthopaedic firm between 1968 and 1974. Originally, 150 patients were reviewed, but 47 patients were excluded from the series for the following reasons: associated fractures of the lower tibia (10), associated fractures of the talus (3), inadequate follow-up (15) and patients lost to follow-up (19). Only patients who were followed up for at least one year were included in the series. The purpose of this study is to present the results obtained by treating displaced malleolar fractures using AO instrumentation.     

Fractures of the neck of the talus. Long-term evaluation of seventy-one cases.

Seventy-one fractures through the neck of the talus were clinically evaluated and classified on the basis of roentgenographic appearance. The follow-up interval averaged 12.7 years. Good or excellent results were achieved in 59 per cent of the fractures. Accurate anatomical reduction of displaced fractures, if necessary by open reduction and internal fixation, is recommended. Avascular necrosis of the talar body occurred in 52 per cent of the fractures (in two of thirteen non-displaced fractures, in half of the fractures with subluxation or dislocation of the subtalar joint, and in sixteen of nineteen fractures with complete dislocation of the body of the talus). Many patients with avascular necrosis treated conservatively had satisfactory results. The complications of avascular necrosis, malunion, subtalar arthritis, and infection required twenty-five secondary procedures. Triple arthrodesis, tibiocalcaneal fusion, and dorsal beak resection of the talar neck all resulted in a high percentage of satisfactory results, but talectomy did not.     

Concomitant fractures of neck of talus and calcaneus in children

We report two cases of an extremely rare concomitant fractures of the neck of talus and calcaneus in children, sustained by contrasting modes of dorsiplantar and plantidorsal compression, but the same mechanism of axial compressive loading. Dissimilar and diametrically opposite modes of axial compression suggest that axial compression is the primary mechanism of injury in fractures of the neck of talus, which is the common denominator in the two cases. Early recognition of subtle presentations of undisplaced and minimally displaced fractures of the neck of talus in children is of paramount importance to avoid the high risk of avascular necrosis and demands a high index of suspicion. In the combination of fractured neck of talus and calcaneus, displacement of talus is the operative determinant of intervention and outcome.     

An unusual fracture of the talus in a snowboarder

Fractures of the talus are uncommon. However, snow- boarding and skateboarding are 2 activities that are specifically associated with talus fractures. These patients sustain occult lateral talus process fractures that present as a severe ankle injury. The diagnosis is difficult because of subtle clinical and plain radiographic findings. Computed tomography is a very useful tool for the assessment of these injuries. Although the majority of these athletes have lateral sided talus fractures, there are variants. We present an unusual case of a displaced intra-articular fracture of the subtalar joint involving the middle articular facet of the talus with extension of the fracture into the talar head. This highlights the importance of carefully assessing snowboarders' "ankle injuries."     

Malleolar fractures in alcoholics treated with biodegradable internal fixation: 6/16 reoperations in a randomized study

29 alcohol abusers with displaced malleolar fractures were randomized to treatment with biodegradable self-reinforced polyglycolide screws or metallic implants. During an average follow-up time of 7 (0-15) months, 8 patients out of 16 treated with biodegradable fixation had postoperative redisplace-ment of the fracture and 6 were reoperated. 1 fracture in 13 patients with metallic fixation had a slight displacement postoperatively which did not require reoperation.     

Is the Midterm Progress of Pediatric and Adolescent Talus Fractures Stratified by Age?

The outcomes of pediatric talus fractures have been minimally reported in published studies. The purpose of the present retrospective study was to determine the clinical and radiographic outcomes after talus fractures in pediatric and adolescent patients and to define the differences among the different age groups in this population. A total of 52 children and adolescents (54 fractures) with 24 type 1 (44.44%), 13 type 2 (24.07%), 8 type 3 (14.81%), and 9 type 4 (16.67%) Marti-Weber fractures were considered. Of the 52 patients, 19 (35.19%; 21 talus fractures) with follow-up data available for >12 months were included in the final study population. Of the 21 fractures, 9 (42.86 %) were type 1, 4 (19.05%) were type 2, 1 (4.76%) was type 3, and 7 (33.33%) were type 4. The mean patient age was 14.7 (range 4 to 18) years. The patients were divided into 3 age groups: group 1, age ≤11.9 years; group 2, age 12.0 to 15.8 years; and group 3, age 16.1 to 18.0 years. Of the 21 fractures, 3 (14.29%) were treated nonoperatively and 18 (85.71%) operatively. The overall mean follow-up duration was 40.3 (range 14 to 95) months. The outcomes of interest included fracture nonunion, talar avascular necrosis, ankle range of motion, pain, arthrosis, and arthrodesis. After treatment, the mean ankle range of motion was 20° (range 0° to 35°) of dorsiflexion and 40° (range 0° to 45°) of plantarflexion. Complications included persistent pain in 10 fractures (47.62%), 3 cases of nonunion (14.29%), 3 cases of avascular necrosis (14.29%; of which, 1 [4.76%] required ankle and subtalar fusion), and arthrosis developing in ≥1 surrounding joint in 12 fractures (57.14%). Of the 12 fractures in group 3, 9 (75.00%) developed arthrosis and 2 (16.67%) subsequently required arthrodesis. Our observations suggest that the incidence of displaced talus fractures, as well as complications, increases with patient age.     

Fracture of the neck of the talus. A clinical study

A clinical evaluation of 46 patients treated for fractures of the neck of the talus has been made after a mean follow-up period of 6 years. The cause of injury was most frequently motor vehicle accidents (26) and falls from heights (11). In non-displaced fractures plaster with immobilization was used and displaced fractures were treated by closed or open reduction. At follow-up most of the patients complained of symptoms hampering daily activities. Objectively, excellent to good results were obtained in 75 per cent of the non-displaced fractures and in 42 per cent of the displaced. Delayed union occurred in 15 per cent. Avascular necrosis was found in 15 per cent and degenerative changes in 97 per cent. A decreased density of bone under the articular cartilage, called subchondral atrophy, was seen in 50 per cent.     

Epidemiology,classification, treatment and mortality of Talus fractures: An observational study of 1794 talus fractures from the Swedish Fracture Register

BackgroundEpidemiological data on talus fractures from large nationwide and multicenter studies are rare. This study aims to describe the epidemiology, fracture classification and treatment regimens of talus fractures in a large adult Swedish population.MethodsThis observational study is based on data from the Swedish Fracture Register (SFR) including talar fractures in patients ≥18 with a sustained fracture between 2012 and 2021. Epidemiological data on sex, age, injury date, injury mechanism and type (high or low energy trauma), fracture classification (side, type), initial treatment and mortality were analysed.ResultsWe included 1794 talus fractures (1757 patients, 60 % men). Mean age was 40.3 years (range 18–96), and a biphasic age distribution was seen in women. High-energy trauma caused 33 % of all talus fractures. Of all talus fractures, 817 (45.5 %) were classified as AO/OTA type A fractures (avulsion), 370 (20.6 %) as type B (neck) and 435 (24.2 %) as type C (body). The remaining 172 (9.6 %) talus fractures were not classified/unclassifiable. Men were in the majority in all fracture groups except A1. For type A1–3, B1 and C1–2 fractures, most patients were treated non-operatively; in B2–3 and C3 fractures most patients received operative management. Fracture fixation with screws was the dominating surgical treatment. The overall 30-day mortality was 0.2 %.ConclusionTalus fractures are most commonly encountered in young and middle-aged men. In contrast to men, a biphasic age distribution was observed in women. Approximately half of the talus fractures are avulsions. Operative treatment, mostly screw fixation, is performed in more complex fracture configurations (B2, B3 and C3 fractures).Level of evidenceIV, retrospective observational cohort study     

Avascular necrosis after minimally displaced talus fracture in a child

This is a case report of a delayed diagnosis in a 5 year old child who sustained a minimally displaced fracture of the proximal or posterior aspect of the talar neck of the left foot with no subluxation at the subtalar or ankle joint of his left talus. Avascular necrosis (AVN) appeared 6 months after the injury. The further course was protracted with another 12 months of non-weight bearing. The case was followed until 36 months after the injury with nearly full functional recovery. An extensive literature review revealed a calculated incidence of AVN after reportedly non-displaced talus fractures in children of 16 per cent which is considerably more than is reported in adults. Nearly half of all reported cases occurred after the fracture had been missed initially. 8 of 11 cases with reported age occurred between 1 and 5 years. No child was older than 9 years, which indicates that the immature talus may be more prone to AVN. Some possible causes for the higher incidence of AVN in children with non-displaced talus fractures are discussed. Prolonged non weight-bearing cannot be recommended, since it reportedly does not alter the course of the disease.