The role of parenteral nutrition

Patients with acute leukemia who undergo hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) are susceptible to malnutrition caused by several factors including intensive cytotoxic therapy. This paper discusses the significance of malnutrition in these patients and provides an overview of nutrition therapy by the oral, enteral, and parenteral routes. The goal is to investigate whether the use of parenteral nutrition (PN) produces improved clinical outcomes in patients with acute leukemia and to identify criteria for the selection of patients most likely to benefit from this therapy. Although PN may be appropriate for patients suffering from complications such as graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) and mucositis, the data available at this time do not support PN as first-line therapy for all recipients of HSCT.     

Effect of preoperative nutrition therapy type and duration on short-time outcomes in gastric cancer patient with gastric outlet obstruction

ObjectiveTo avoid perioperative complications caused malnutrition, nutrition therapy is necessary in gastric outlet obstruction (GOO) patients. Compared to parenteral nutrition (PN), enteral nutrition (EN) is associated with many advantages. This study aimed to investigate whether preoperative EN has beneficial clinical effects compared to preoperative PN in gastric cancer patients with GOO undergoing surgery.MethodsAccording to the methods of preoperative nutrition therapy, 143 patients were divided into EN group (n=42) and PN group (n=101) between January 2013 and December 2017 at the Chinese People’s Liberation Army General Hospital. Multiple logistic regression models were used to assess the association between the methods of preoperative nutrition therapy and postoperative day of flatus passage. The generalized additive model and two-piecewise linear regression model were used to calculate the inflection point of the preoperative nutritional therapy time on the postoperative day of flatus passage in the PN group.ResultsEN shortened the postoperative day of flatus passage in gastric cancer patients with GOO, which is a protective factor, especially in patients who underwent non-radical operations and the postoperative day of flatus passage reduced when the preoperative PN therapy was up to 3 d and a longer PN therapy (>3 d) did not accelerate the postoperative recovery of gastrointestinal functions.ConclusionsPreoperative EN therapy would benefit gastric cancer patients with GOO by accelerating postoperative recovery. For patients with absolute obstruction, no more than 3-day PN therapy is recommended if patients can tolerate general anesthesia and surgery.     

肠外营养在不能手术肝癌治疗中的应用

目的:观察肠外营养在肝癌治疗中的作用.方法:38例体重下降超过10%不能手术的肝癌患者随机分成A、B两组,A组接受肝动脉插管化疗栓塞(TACE)前给予肠外营养(PN)支持;B组单接受TACE.结果:A组有效率及一年存活率均显著高于B组.结论:TACE前给予PN支持可以提高伴有营养不良的不能手术肝癌的治疗效果.     

Short- and long-term effectiveness of enteral and parenteral nutrition in reversing or preventing protein-energy malnutrition in advanced neuroblastoma. A prospective randomized study

The effectiveness of enteral and parenteral nutrition regimens in preventing or reversing protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) and in preventing treatment delays was evaluated in 32 children receiving treatment for newly diagnosed Stage III (3 patients) and IV (29 patients) neuroblastoma. Ten of 18 malnourished patients were randomized to central parenteral nutrition (CPN) and 8 to peripheral parenteral nutrition (PPN) plus enteral nutrition for 4 weeks and then received enteral nutrition (EN: intense nutrition counselling, oral foods and supplements) for weeks 5 through 10. Ten of 14 nourished patients received EN and 4 CPN for 4 weeks and EN thereafter. Dietary, anthropometric and biochemical measurements were determined for weeks 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, and 10 for 24 patients who completed the protocols. In malnourished patients, both CPN (seven patients) and PPN (seven patients) were effective in reversing PEM in the first 4 weeks; thereafter, EN effectively maintained nutritional gains in both groups. In nourished patients, EN (seven patients) was not as effective as CPN (three patients) in preventing PEM during the first 4 weeks; afterwards, EN maintained gains in the CPN group but did not promote needed increases in weight nor fat reserves in the EN group. Patients supported by parenteral nutrition (PN, weeks 1-4) had fewer treatment delays (2/17, 12%) than EN patients (4/7, 57%, P less than 0.05). These data indicate that PN reverses or prevents PEM and prevents treatment delays during the first 4 weeks of intense oncologic treatment and provides nutritional benefits which can be maintained with EN thereafter.     

大肠癌合并恶性肠梗阻18例的非手术治疗

目的探讨胃肠减压，相关药物联合肠外营养支持（PN）的非手术措施，治疗完全性恶性肠梗阻患者的疗效。方法对18例晚期大肠癌所致的完全性肠梗阻患者，采取胃肠减压，并以生长抑素、止吐药、止痛药及糖皮质激素药物为主，联合肠外营养支持（PN）进行治疗，观察治疗前后的KPS评分与梗阻症状及胃液引流量的变化情况。结果18例患者中7例疗效良好，11例症状缓解明显，继续肠外营养（PN）支持治疗，生活质量明显改善。结论采取胃肠减压，并以生长抑素、止吐药、止痛药及糖皮质激素药物为主，联合肠外营养支持（PN）的非手术治疗，对大肠癌并恶性肠梗阻患者的疗效好，患者生活质量明显改善，无毒副反应。     

肝移植术后的营养治疗

目的探讨肝移植术后的营养治疗方法。方法对11例肝移植病人术后的营养治疗方法和营养状况进行回顾性分析。术后1～3天采用全肠外营养(TPN)，辅以人白蛋白、血浆；术后4—5天肠内营养(EN)结合肠外营养(PN)；术后6～10天逐渐过渡到全肠内营养；术后12～18天完全经口进食。术后常规使用重组人生长激素rhGH4～7天。结果除2例病人分别死于脑出血、呼吸衰竭外，余9例恢复顺利。结论适当的营养治疗有利于肝移植病人的术后恢复。     

胃癌根治术后不同营养支持疗法的临床分析

目的：探讨胃癌根治术后应用肠内营养与肠外营养的临床效果。方法将2011年6月至2012年12月行胃癌根治性手术的60例患者,随机分为2组：肠内营养组（EN 组）和肠外营养组（PN组）,平均每组30例。所有患者在综合治疗基础上,分别予以肠内营养及肠外营养。观测两组患者的体质量情况以及术前及术后的血红蛋白、白蛋白、血清前蛋白。同时观察术后并发症、肛门排气时间,以及平均住院时间。结果EN 组患者术后体质量以及8d 后血红蛋白、白蛋白、血清前蛋白等营养指标均明显优于 PN 组（P ＜0．01）;EN 组患者的肛门排气时间、术后并发症以及平均住院时间等明显少于 PN 组（P ＜0．05）。结论胃癌根治术后对患者实施肠内营养支持相比于肠外营养支持更加有效、经济和安全。     

Value of nutrition support therapy in patients with gastrointestinal malignancies: a narrative review and health economic analysis of impact on clinical outcomes in the United States

Malnutrition, particularly under-nutrition, is highly prevalent among adult patients with a diagnosis of gastrointestinal (GI) cancer and negatively affects patient outcomes. Malnutrition is associated with clinical and surgical complications for patients undergoing therapy for GI cancers and the costs associated with those complications is a high burden for the US health system. Our objective was to identify high-quality evidence for nutrition support interventions associated with cost savings for patient care, followed by a complex economic value analysis to project cost savings for the US health system. A narrative literature search was conducted in which combined keywords in the areas of therapeutic nutrition (nutrition, malnutrition), a specific therapeutic area [GI cancer (esophageal, gastric, gallbladder, pancreatic, liver/hepatic, small and large intestine, colorectal)], and clinical outcomes and healthcare cost, to look for nutrition interventions that could significantly improve clinical outcomes. Medicare claims data were then analyzed using the findings of these identified studies and this modeling exercise supported identifying the cost and healthcare resource utilization implications of specific populations to determine the impact of nutrition support on reducing these costs as reflected in the summary of the evidence. Eight studies were found that provided clinical outcomes and health cost savings data, 2 of those had the strongest level of evidence and were used for Value Analysis calculations. Nutrition interventions such as oral diet modifications, enteral nutrition (EN) supplementation, and parenteral nutrition (PN) have been studied especially in the peri-operative setting. Specifically, peri-operative immunonutrition administration and utilization of enhanced recovery pathways after surgery have been associated with significant improvement in postoperative complications and decreased length of hospital stay (LOS). Utilizing economic modeling of Medicare claims data from GI cancer patients, potential annual cost savings of $242 million were projected by the widespread adoption of these interventions. Clinical outcomes can be improved with the use of nutrition interventions in patients with GI cancers. Healthcare costs can be reduced as a result of fewer in-hospital complications and shorter lengths of hospital stay. The application of nutrition intervention provides a positive clinical and economic value proposition to the healthcare system for patients with GI cancers     

２００８年非手术恶性肿瘤患者营养支持治疗指南的解读

恶性肿瘤患者出现营养不良和体重下降非常普遍,可导致患者预后不良,严重时还可导致死亡率的升高。但是对于恶性肿瘤患者,尤其是放化疗及恶液质患者的营养支持,目前依然有争议。为此我们从恶性肿瘤与营养不良的关系、肿瘤患者的营养风险筛查、营养评定的临床路径、肿瘤患者的静脉营养治疗及静脉营养治疗的风险五大方面对２００８年最前沿的循证医学研究结果予以总结,供我国肿瘤诊治相关医师参考。     

十二指肠营养管在食管贲门癌术后的应用

目的探讨食管和贲门癌手术后肠道内外营养方法疗效有无差别。方法 221例食管癌贲门癌患者手术后随机分成两组,肠内营养组（EN组）与肠外营养组（PN组）,EN组术中放置十二指肠营养管,术后尽早即予以肠内营养。PN组术后予以周围静脉营养支持。监测两组患者其术后肠道功能恢复时间,出现瘘管并发症,平均住院天数及住院所需费用。结果两组间在术后肠功能恢复时间、住院天数及所需费用方面EN组明显优于PN组（P〈0.01）,术后瘘管并发症方面差异无显著性（P〉0.05）。结论食管癌贲门癌术中放置十二指肠营养管予以肠内营养,可明显改善患者术后营养,减少并发症且费用低廉。     

晚期癌症患者营养状况调查及肠内肠外营养支持效果比较

目的：调查晚期癌症患者营养不良的发生情况,比较肠内营养（EN）及肠外营养（PN）支持的疗效。方法：随机选取188例住院晚期癌症患者,用营养风险筛查2002（NRS2002）量表评估患者营养状况。将诊断为营养不良的患者随机分为2组,分别给予肠内营养和肠外营养支持,观察并比较两组患者治疗前后的营养改善情况、生存质量及功能康复状况。结果：患者营养不良发生率为60．1％,≥70岁者发生率高于＜70岁者（P ＜0．05）;两组治疗前后的营养状况指标、生存质量评分和功能康复评分均有统计学差异（P ＜0．05）,治疗后 EN 组营养状况指标、生存质量指标和功能康复指标均优于 PN 组（P ＜0．05）。结论：晚期癌症患者营养不良发生率高,在胃肠道功能正常时首选肠内营养支持治疗。     

Acute leukemia and myelodysplasia after adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer: durable remissions after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

BackgroundAlthough secondary acute leukemias and myelodysplasia are the known complications of adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer, the treatment outcome of these secondary malignancies is presently unclear. We examined the clinical and pathological features as well as the treatment results of a series of patients with acute leukemia/myelodysplasia arising after adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer.Patients and methodsPatients referred to our institution during a 5-year period for treatment of acute leukemia/myelodysplasia and who had received adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer are included. Leukemia-free survival for the whole group and for patients who underwent hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) was estimated.ResultsFifteen women (14 with acute leukemia and one with myelodysplasia) were identified. Seven of 15 patients had received an anthracycline, cyclophosphamide and a taxane. Ten patients developed acute leukemia/myelodysplasia with a latency period of 2 years or less from initiation of chemotherapy. Although mixed-lineage leukemia (MLL) rearrangement was the commonest chromosomal abnormality (8 of 15 patients), various other chromosomal abnormalities were also detected. Twelve of 15 patients underwent HSCT (11 allogeneic and one autologous). Eleven of these 12 patients who underwent HSCT were in remission at a median follow-up of 20.4 months (range 4.4–53.3 months).ConclusionDurable remissions can be achieved in patients who develop acute leukemia/myelodysplasia secondary to adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer and are able to undergo allogeneic HSCT. Our results indicate that HSCT should be an early consideration in the management of such patients who are suitable candidates for the procedure.     

Antifungal prophylaxis for severely neutropenic chemotherapy recipients: a meta analysis of randomized-controlled clinical trials

BACKGROUND: The overall clinical efficacy of the azoles antifungal agents and low-dose intravenous amphotericin B for antifungal chemoprophylaxis in patients with malignant disease who have severe neutropenia remains unclear. METHODS: Randomized-controlled trials of azoles (fluconazole, itraconazole, ketoconazole, and miconazole) or intravenous amphotericin B formulations compared with placebo/no treatment or polyene-based controls in severely neutropenic chemotherapy recipients were evaluated using meta-analytical techniques. RESULTS: Thirty-eight trials that included 7014 patients (study agents, 3515 patients; control patients, 3499 patients) were analyzed. Overall, there were reductions in the use of parenteral antifungal therapy (prophylaxis success: odds ratio [OR], 0.57; 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 0.48-0.68; relative risk reduction [RRR], 19%; number requiring treatment for this outcome [NNT], 10 patients), superficial fungal infection (OR, 0.29; 95% CI, 0.20-0.43; RRR, 61%; NNT, 12 patients), invasive fungal infection (OR, 0.44; 95% CI, 0.35-0.55; RRR, 56%; NNT, 22 patients), and fungal infection-related mortality (OR, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.41-0.82; RRR, 47%; NNT, 52 patients). Invasive aspergillosis was unaffected (OR, 1.03; 95% CI, 0.62-1.44). Although overall mortality was not reduced (OR, 0.87; 95% CI, 0.74-1.03), subgroup analyses showed reduced mortality in studies of patients who had prolonged neutropenia (OR, 0.72; 95% CI, 0.55-0.95) or who underwent hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) (OR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.59-0.99). The multivariate metaregression analyses identified HSCT, prolonged neutropenia, acute leukemia with prolonged neutropenia, and higher azole dose as predictors of treatment effect. CONCLUSIONS: Antifungal prophylaxis reduced morbidity, as evidenced by reductions in the use of parenteral antifungal therapy, superficial fungal infection, and invasive fungal infection, as well as reducing fungal infection-related mortality. These effects were most pronounced in patients with malignant disease who had prolonged neutropenia and HSCT recipients.     

胃癌术后应用含谷氨酰胺和中链甘油三酯早期肠内营养的临床研究

目的 探讨胃癌术后早期应用含谷氨酰胺和中链甘油三酯肠内营养(GMEN)的可行性和临床应用价值.方法 选择胃癌术后需要营养支持的60例患者随机分为肠内营养(EN)组和肠外营养(PN)组,两组营养支持均等热量、等氮量,其中EN组选用含谷氨酰胺和中链甘油三酯的肠内营养液,实施早期营养.分别于术前第1天、术后第8天检测营养评定指标体重、血清白蛋白(A1b)、血红蛋白(Hb)和氮平衡,免疫评定指标淋巴细胞计数(LCC)、IgA、IgG、IgM、CD3、CD4、CD8、CD4/CD8、前列腺素E-2(PGE-2)和C反映蛋白(CRP).同时观察术后并发症及胃肠道功能恢复时间.结果 两组在体重、血红蛋白的恢复方面没有统计学差异(P=0.305,P=0.057),但EN组的白蛋白及氮平衡恢复较PN组为快,组间差异有统计学意义(P=0.017,P=0.000).反映免疫指标的淋巴细胞、IgA、IgG、CD4、CD4/CD8在术后EN组较PN组明显升高,差异有统计学意义(P=0.000),而术后CRP在EN组明显低于PN组(P=0.000).术后并发症发生率,PN组为46.7%,EN组为16.7%,差异有统计学意义(P=0.000).肛门恢复排气时间EN组为(2.46±0.56)天,PN组为(3.66±0.89)天,差异有统计学意义(P=0.000).结论 胃癌术后患者实施早期肠内营养,应用GMEN可提高患者免疫力,促进机体恢复,降低术后并发症的发生率,是一种实用有效的临床营养支持方法.     

Enteral and parenteral nutrition in anorectic patients with advanced gastrointestinal cancer

Seventeen patients with advanced, noncurable gastrointestinal cancer with symptoms of anorexia and malnutrition were treated with controlled enteral or total parenteral nutrition over a 3-week period. Eleven patients received enteral and six parenteral nutrition. The nutrition was given with 30-40 kcal/kg b.w. daily. No anticancer treatment was given. Before and after the treatment period, the patients were assessed regarding their nutritional, immunological, and performance status. None of the studied nutritional parameters changed significantly over the 3-week period and there was no clear indication of an improved lymphocyte reactivity. There was a tendency toward improvement in performance status for the patients on enteral nutrition, while the reverse seemed to be true for the parenteral group. It is concluded that nutritional support may halt the progressive malnutrition often seen in patients with cancer and serve as a palliative treatment in selected patients.     

Standards, Options and Recommendations for home parenteral or enteral nutrition in adult cancer patients]

CONTEXT: The "Standards, Options and Recommendations" (SOR) project, started in 1993, is a collaboration between the Federation of the French Cancer Centres (FNCLCC), the 20 French Cancer Centres and specialists from French Public Universities, General Hospitals and Private Clinics. The main objective is the development of clinical practice guidelines to improve the quality of health care and outcome for cancer patients. The methodology is based on literature review and critical appraisal by a multidisciplinary group of experts, with feedback from specialists in cancer care delivery. OBJECTIVES: To develop clinical practice guidelines according to the definitions of the Standards, Options and Recommendations project for home parenteral or enteral nutrition in adult cancer patients. METHODS: Data were identified by searching Medline, Cancerlit, web sites and using the personal reference lists of members of the expert groups. Once the guidelines were defined, the document was submitted for review to 72 independent reviewers. RESULTS: The main recommendations for home parenteral or enteral nutrition in adult cancer patients are: 1) Home parenteral or enteral nutrition concerns cancer patients with malnutrition or with inadequate/impossible oral intake, during therapy of because of therapeutic after-effects (standard). Same indications apply for home and hospital artificial nutrition (standard). 2) Patients need a multidisciplinary follow-up (oncologists, nutritionists, and pain specialists), and this follow-up will make treatment adaptations according to the nutritional status possible (recommendation, expert agreement). An active participation of patients and/or their family circle is very important (standard). 3) The benefit of home parenteral or enteral nutrition on the quality of life of terminally ill patients (vs. hydration) has not been demonstrated. When life expectancy is below 3 months, and the Karnofsky index below 50, the drawbacks of home artificial nutrition are more important than its advantages. In this case, home parenteral or enteral nutrition is not recommended (recommendation, expert agreement). 4) Prospective clinical trials are recommended to evaluate the impact of home nutrition on quality of life in cancer patients (expert agreement). 5) The use of educational booklets that mention the telephone number of a referent health care and what to do when a problem happens (e.g. fever on home parenteral nutrition) is recommended (expert agreement). In France, patients should be referred to authorized home parenteral nutrition centres (recommendation, expert agreement).     

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation among patients with leukemia of all ages in Texas

BACKGROUND: Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is an effective but expensive medical procedure to which some ethnic minorities, the elderly, and those without insurance have been shown to have limited access. The purpose of the current study was to determine whether socioeconomic factors were associated with HSCT usage rates in patients with leukemia. METHODS: The authors identified 6574 patients with acute lymphocytic leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, acute myelogenous leukemia, chronic myelogenous leukemia, or other leukemias from the 1999 Texas Hospital Inpatient Discharge Public Use Data File. Of these patients, 1604 received an autologous or allogeneic HSCT. The authors assessed patients' ethnicity, payer status, age, gender, and comorbid medical conditions. Logistic regression was used to control for patient characteristics and to evaluate associations among payer status, ethnicity, and HSCT use. P < or = 0.05 indicated statistical significance. RESULTS: Patients who self-paid had the highest rate of HSCT use in all age groups (32%; P < or = 0.01) and in the adult group (36%; P = 0.11). Elderly patients with Medicare had a low rate of HSCT use (17%; P = 0.13). Logistic regression showed no statistically significant associations between payer status or ethnicity and HSCT use. However, elderly women were significantly less likely to undergo HSCT than elderly men (odds ratio, 0.34; P < or = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The lack of statistically significant differences in HSCT use among adult patients with leukemia was surprising because previous studies had shown differences in HSCT by ethnicity and insurance.     

Treatment of adult patients with Philadelphia chromosome-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia

In the pre-imatinib era, treatment outcomes of adult patients with Philadelphia chromosome (Ph)-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) were dismal. Despite the use of intensive chemotherapy and allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), complete remission and overall survival rates were less than 70% and 20%, respectively. However, imatinib, in combination with conventional chemotherapy, has dramatically changed outcomes, producing approximately 95% complete remission and 50% overall survival with or without allogeneic HSCT. Current research is now focusing on how to prevent relapse. Improvement of postremission therapy is indispensable. Although allogeneic HSCT during first complete remission is still the first choice for feasible patients, post-HSCT imatinib therapy and imatinib plus chemotherapy combinations should also be studied. New BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase inhibitors are expected to improve outcomes in imatinib-resistant leukemia. Our hope is that, in the near future, Ph-positive ALL will become a leukemia in which allogeneic HSCT is offered only for relapsed or refractory cases.     

The sulfone syndrome secondary to dapsone prophylaxis in a patient undergoing unrelated hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

Dapsone is commonly used for pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) prophylaxis in immunocompromised patients. It has been used as an alternative therapy in the hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) setting in patients who can't tolerate trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. The Sulfone syndrome is not a well-known sequela of dapsone therapy and occurs at various doses, ranging from 50-300 mg/d. In all cases the syndrome occurs within 2 months of initiating therapy. Its clinical manifestations include: fever, methemoglobinemia, hemolytic anemia, exfoliative dermatitis and transaminits. A 51-year old female underwent a matched unrelated hematopoiectic stem cell transplant for acute mylogenous leukemia. Dapsone therapy was initiated on day +28 at a dose of 100 mg/day for PCP prophylaxis secondary to the patient's history of a sulfonamide allergy. On day +59, one month after initiation of therapy she developed hepatitis, hemolytic anemia, fever and methemoglobinemia of 8%. She was transferred to the intensive care unit and subsequently developed an exfoliative dermatitis. We conclude that the clinical presentation of this patient after HSCT on dapsone therapy coincide with the sulfone syndrome not previously described in a patients after HSCT.