Analysis of factors related to the high incidence of tuberculosis in the city of Wakayama--analysis according to age groups, and sputum test results

Over the last 20 years, the decrease in the incidence of Tuberculosis (TB) in Japan has slowed down. As of 1999, the incidence rate was 34.6 per 100,000 population in Japan, which was higher than that of the other developed countries, and the incidence rate in the city of Wakayama, one of the prefectural capital cities in Japan, during the same period was 42.9 per 100,000 population. We investigated the causes of this high incidence rate of TB in Wakayama City according to the analysis by age groups and sputum test results when patients are newly registered. Comparing our data during the period from 1.1.1998 to 12.31.1999 with data during the same period in the whole country and the rest of Wakayama Pref., the following results were obtained. Observing by age-groups, the incidence of TB in Wakayama City as well as in the rest of Wakayama Pref. and in the whole country was highest in the age-group above 70 years of age, though the rate of Wakayama City was significantly higher (146.2 per 100,000 population) than that in the rest of Wakayama Pref. (98.5 per 100,000 population) and that in the whole country (90.3 per 100,000 population). Furthermore, the incidence rate of cases diagnosed as TB without bacteriological proof in Wakayama City (57.1 per 100,000 population) was significantly higher than that of the whole country (33.7 per 100,000 population). Therefore, we concluded that one of the causes of high incidence of TB in Wakayama City was due to inappropriate method of diagnosing TB. More extensive use of sputum examination and strict evaluation of cases without bacteriological proof are desirable to increase the accuracy of TB diagnosis in Wakayama City.     

Survey on nosocomial infection of tuberculosis in nursing homes for elderly in Osaka City

PURPOSE: To ascertain tuberculosis (TB) infection control measures and incidence of TB in nursing homes for elder. SUBJECTS AND METHOD: The questionnaire on TB infection control was distributed to all nursing homes in Osaka City in 2005. RESULTS: The questionnaire was returned from 197 (90%) out of 219 facilities. In more than half of facilities, infection control committee was organized (57%) and automated ventilation system was installed (59%). In almost all facilities, residents had annual chest X-ray screening (94%). Respiratory symptoms were checked for residents and "day service" users in majority of facilities. 100% of employees had annual chest X-ray screening. However TB education session for employees was held annually in only 40% of facilities. Education materials on TB were distributed in 19%. Tuberculin skin test (TST) was conducted for new employees in 31%. TB patients were diagnosed in 22% of facilities in the past 3 years from 2002 to 2004. Incidence rate of TB is 75.2 per 100,000 for residents and 24.1 per 100,000 for employees. Analysis showed that TB incidence rate is higher in facilities with larger number of residents and in facilities where infection control committee is organized, and facilities where TST is conducted for new employees. DISCUSSION: In Osaka City, TB infection control was more often implemented in facilities where TB patient was diagnosed. When age structure is taken into consideration, TB incidence rate of employees or residents was lower than general population. Nosocomial TB infection does not seem to be occurring in nursing homes. However, as TB patients were diagnosed occasionally, TB infection control measures should be strengthened in Osaka City.     

Tuberculosis control of urban areas in Japan

The rates of tuberculosis remain high in urban areas. The declining speed of tuberculosis incidence rate in urban areas has been slower than other areas. Efforts and resources to tuberculosis control must be concentrated on urban locations to eradicate tuberculosis in Japan. 1. Tuberculosis control in a public health center of urban area: Teru OGURA and Chiyo INOGUCHI (Toshima City, Ikebukuro Public Health Center, Tokyo Metropolitan) A wide range of TB control measures is implemented by public health centers, such as a patient registration, home-visit guidance, contact examination in urban areas. Directors of every health center have the direct responsibility for tuberculosis control measures in their jurisdiction. Ikebukuro is urban areas where there are many offices, shopping and amusement facilities. Urban people is often on the move looking for job, so public health centers are often not easy to carry out contact examinations as planned. In recent years, homelessness has been recognized as a growing urban social problem. Their incidence of tuberculosis is high. Special TB control program must be carried out in urban areas. 2. Tuberculosis Control in Tokyo Metropolitan: Kazumasa MATSUKI (Department of Infectious Diseases and Tuberculosis, Bureau of Public Health, Tokyo Metropolitan) There has been a steady decline in the TB wards. The beds for TB patients are running short and even smear positive TB cases cannot be put in a hospital without waiting several days. Staffs of an urban emergency department must protect tuberculosis infection by environmental controls of emergency room. Tokyo Metropolitan government supports the engineering improvements of emergency room to hospitals. Directly observed therapy for tuberculosis patients at a district has been implemented to complete their therapy. On DOT, a trained health worker observes the patient take anti-TB medication. 3. Usefulness of Molecular Epidemiologic approach on Tuberculosis Control: Atsushi HASE (Osaka City Institute Laboratory of Health and Environment) DNA fingerprinting establishes the genetic relatedness of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates and has become a powerful tool in tuberculosis epidemiology. To use DNA fingerprinting to assess the efficacy of current tuberculosis infection-control practices. Combining conventional epidemiologic techniques with DNA fingerprinting of M. tuberculosis can improve the understanding of how tuberculosis is transmitted. Patients were assigned to clusters based on mycobacterial isolates with identical DNA fingerprints. Clusters were assumed to have arisen from recent transmission. We analyzed M. tuberculosis isolates from patients reported to the tuberculosis registry by RFLP techniques. These results were interpreted along with demographic data. Patients infected with the same strains were identified according to their RFLP patterns, and patients with identical patterns were grouped in clusters. RFLP patterns of high incidence districts have more variations than other areas. This suggests that the source of tuberculosis infection are quite diverse and complicated. Tuberculosis patients may accumulate to high incidence districts from other places after infection. 4. Structure of High Incidence of Tuberculosis and Control Plan in Osaka City: Yoichi TATSUMI (Bureau of Infection Control, Osaka City Office) The case notification rate in Osaka City is the highest in Japan. That of all TB cases and smear positive TB cases was 1573 and 216 per 100,000 population in 1997 at Airin District in Osaka City. The main reason for this highest incidence rate is that there are many homeless people and it is a mobile population. Most of residents are daily laborers. They come from all over Japan and stay there, mainly in rented rooms, to look for jobs. Thousands of homeless people also live in tents on streets or in parks. We are making to new strategic plan to intensify tuberculosis control measures throughout the city. Osaka city government h     

Thinking about tuberculosis in Osaka City

The incidence rate of tuberculosis in Osaka City (104.2 per 100,000 population) is extremely high, namely 3 times higher than the national average. Why the tuberculosis situation of Osaka City is so bad? The reason could be summarized as follows: Before the end of the World War II (1945), it was the sequelae of high prevalence observed in the era of Meiji, Taisho and early years of Showa. However, after the World War II, especially from the Heisei era (1989-), it is deeply affected by the influence of socio-economic background in Japan. Osaka City is characterized as the city of merchants and small enterprises. And therefore, the city substantially has the nature of the locality that brings in or produces some kinds of social vulnerability such as temporary laborers and homeless people. Of the tuberculosis patients in Osaka City, about 20% are homeless. In addition, patients of the smear positive infectious tuberculosis are often discovered among temporary laborers who change their residences and job sites from place to place and contact widely with citizens. These two are the most difficult problems in tuberculosis control program of Osaka City. In the meantime, there are many citizens who are careless of their health and do not follow the law or social rule, and this has apparently no direct connection with the problems of tuberculosis. However, it might be one of the factors of an undesirable trend of tuberculosis in Osaka City. In order to improve such a unfavorable tuberculosis situation in Osaka City, effective and strong supporting activities to the tuberculosis program are essentially needed. And these activities must be done from the standpoint of health-promotion, namely, health education for citizens and improvement of social environmental conditions to maintain healthy and cultural life.     

Tuberculosis control in urban areas

Directly Observed Treatment, Short Course (DOTS) in Japan was initiated and is now established for homeless TB patients in urban areas. The experience of this DOTS is assisting the development of DOTS in Japan. However, TB incidence and problems are now concentrated in urban areas. What makes tuberculosis control in urban areas difficult? How can we overcome these problems? In this symposium we reviewed TB control activities and discussed the issues highlighted by four presenters.     

Tuberculosis care and new horizon of Japanese society

Current tuberculosis (TB) problems are reflections of Japanese society. Living or dying alone among the elderly, difficulty in finding jobs or withdrawal into themselves among the youths are features of modem society. The future needs for TB care were discussed on specific topics of TB among the elderly, foreigners and the homeless. Presenters showed the importance of the patient-centered care in collaboration with public health and welfare services. Both patients and staffs will see others shining, as they touch each other in the deep part of human existence. A diabetic ex-TB patient talked his experience in his treatment. His window of mind was gradually opened from inside with the continuous support in DOTS by the staff of the public health center. To accumulate these experiences of a heartwarming atmosphere will have the effective power on establishment of social supporting systems. This symposium can be a step towards humanized society or a new horizon of public health which can answer to another need of inner cry of a sick people particularly among the socially disadvantaged who are the victims of the weakness of society. 1. Current situation and issues of elderly tuberculosis patients: Eriko SHIGETO (NHO Higashihiroshima Medical Center). By the analysis of 102 tuberculosis patients of 70 years old and above who were registered at Hiroshima Prefectural Health Center in 2009, 41 patients had severe complications such as diabetes mellitus, renal insufficiency, malignancy or cerebrovascular disorder. Their prognosis was rather poor and the ADL tended to be worsened during hospitalization. Though 16 of the 34 deaths were caused with non-tuberculosis diseases, the ratio of the tuberculosis deaths was higher (4/17) among the patients living alone. Sufficient care of the elderly for early diagnosis, care system to treat various complications and patient support are required. 2. Provision of medical interpreters to help foreigners with tuberculosis in Tokyo: Takashi SAWADA (Services for Health in Asian & African Regions (SHARE)). In 2006, Tokyo Metropolitan Government started to dispatch interpreters for foreigners to strengthen DOTS program. Collaboration with NGOs made it possible to train 37 volunteer interpreters, and to provide services in 13 languages, as of 2010. In Japan, the treatment defaulter rate among non-Japanese tuberculosis patients had been remarkably high. But with having the assistance of interpreters, the treatment completion rate has become higher than 80%. It is recommended to expand a similar system to other part of Japan, as the proportion of foreigners among total tuberculosis cases keeps on increasing nationwide. 3. Tuberculosis problems in Japan from the view point of homelessness-through the activities of a NPO supporting the homeless in collaboration with a public health center: Sadako KANAZAWA (Volunteer, NPO Medical Care Team of Shinjuku Renraku-Kai). It has been 20 years since the issue of homelessness emerged in Japanese society. The people with a history of both tuberculosis and experience of homelessness tend to show a poor prognosis. Our team has played an active role, working with Shinjuku Public Health Center for conducting a screening for tuberculosis every year. It seems that the screening service itself does not make a fundamental solution for homeless people with tuberculosis. Developing a more basic system of 'from street to apartment' is more essential. We believe that understanding the importance of the system is most essential to the people who are involved in health and medical care. 4. What we have learned from DOTS--Toward care by cuddling the patient's mind: Kazuyo ARIMA (PHN, Osaka City Public Health Center). Osaka City has achieved the goals of DOTS set up by the City's TB Control Guidelines since 2001 such as 80% DOTS implementation rate, halving the defaulter rate and incidence rate. It was shown by analysis that the treatment success depends on 'patient's awareness of the disease', 'appropriate DOTS method for each patient', 'existence of side effects', or 'the relationship between treatment supporters'. Through working for the patients whose treatment management was difficult, we have learned that our attitude towards the patients is a most important first step to build a good relationship and mutual trust with the patients, and DOT is an important tool. For treatment supporters,'the patient-centered care', 'care by staying close to the patients' or 'cuddling the patient' s mind' is most necessary to lead the patients to cure. 5. Patient's view: Through DOTS, my life has been renewed: Kuniyoshi MAEDA (Himawari no kai; Ex-homeless TB patients self-help group). It is an unforgettable memory that I was hospitalized due to TB back in 2009. I was seriously ill with also diabetes mellitus. Because I had lost everything due to my friend's cheating, I could not trust anyone before the TB treatment. But I learned how to think of others through the daily communication with doctors, nurses, other staff at the hospital, and Public Health Center. They encouraged me every day and I came to desire to answer to their expectations. Public health nurses taught me that building the reliable relationship is so essential for humans, and I may not have realized this importance if I had not been treated for TB, or treated outside Shinjuku. I would rather say that I was lucky to have got TB, as I have become able to trust other people through DOTS TB care. DOTS is not only for medication, but also general health care and counseling. I hope that as many as poor people, especially homeless can have a similar experience by knowing more about TB and using a health service. I would like to cooperate with TB services if I can be useful. health: Toshio TAKATORIGE (Graduate School of Safety Science, Kansai University). Tuberculosis was ever the biggest health problem in Japan. Ministry of Health and Welfare and Public Health Centers were founded to push forward tuberculosis control. Local governments, companies and people had to follow the national tuberculosis control program uniformly without exception. Currently a new stream of tuberculosis control has been started by DOTS strategy. The aim of DOTS has made all patients take medicine regardless of their social conditions until cure. Every patient is snuggled up and supported whether he is homeless, criminal or a foreigner. The patients also participate in the program actively. The DOTS may be a new public health movement. The strong public health infrastructure is necessary to maintain tuberculosis control towards the low incidence situation. The role of the local government should be more important. This symposium has also shown that the tuberculosis services must be patients-centered and supported by the people, addressing a new horizon of public health in Japan through tuberculosis control.     

Estimation of the future epidemiological situation of tuberculosis in Japan

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the future trends of all forms of tuberculosis (TB) and sputum smear positive pulmonary TB in order to consider the emerging issues of TB control and eliminating TB in Japan. MATERIALS AND METHODS] Annual reports of TB registrations were used for observing past trends of TB, and predictions were then made assuming that past trends would continue. At first, to obtain the number of TB patients by sex and age-group, sex-age-specific incidence rates were estimated for the years 2010, 2015, 2020, 2025 and 2030, and then applied to a sex-age-specific population which was projected by the National Institution of Population and Social Security Research. According to the different methods used to calculate the reduction rates of incidence, we adopted model A and model B. In model A, the reduction rate was calculated by using two groups of the same age group but different members by calendar year. In model B, the reduction rate was calculated by using the same birth cohort but different age by calendar year. We also adopted two sub-models by the observation period of past trends. The incidence rates for the period from 1987 to 2005 were used in model 1 and the incidence rates for the period from 1998 to 2005 were used in model 2. The incidence rate in 1999 was excluded from both model 1 and 2, because the TB incidence rate increased abnormally due to the declaration of a state of emergency concerning tuberculosis in 1999. The speed of decline among particular several sex-age-groups was weighted taking into account the influence of foreign, homeless and elderly cases. The future number of sex-age-specific sputum smear positive pulmonary patients was estimated by applying various parameters, i.e. pulmonary TB rate, sputum smear positive rate and its trend, to the estimated future number of TB incidence. RESULTS: The TB incidence rate, which was 22.2 per 100,000 population as of 2005, would reach 9.8 in model A-1, 5.4 in model A-2, 7.5 in model B-1 and 3.2 in model B-2 by 2030. On the other hand, the sputum smear positive pulmonary incidence rate, which was 8.9 per 100,000 population as of 2005, would decline to 5.5 in model A-1, 3.0 in model A-2, 4.2 in model B-1 and 1.7 in model B-2 by 2030. The future number of TB patients and incidence rates by sex and age were discussed based on a mixed model which used the middle series of estimates, and was obtained by combining model A-2 and model B-1. The number of TB patients by the mixed model will become about 12 thousand with 10.1 per 100,000 population in 2020, and about 7.4 thousand with 6.5 per 100,000 population in 2030. From 2005 to 2020, the age composition of TB patients will change from 0.4% to 0.2% at 0-14 years old, 4% to 4% at 15-24 years old, from 10% to 11% at 25-34 years old, 8% to 11% at 35-44 years old, from 9% to 12% at 45-54 years old, from 15% to 10% at 55-64 years old, 18% to 15% at 64-74 years old, from 24% to 17% at 75-84 years old, and from 11% to 20% at 85 years of age or older. Although the proportion of the elderly aged 65 years or higher will not be so different, the proportion of TB patients aged 85 years or older will almost double. CONCLUSION: The year when the TB incidence rate will reach the level of low-incidence countries, which is defined as a country with a TB incidence rate of less than 10 per 100,000 population, might be around 2020 in Japan. At that time, the age composition of TB patients will tend to be very old patients, and the young adult and middle-aged patients. Problems such as delay in diagnosis and difficulty of treatment are expected among very old patients.     

Evaluation of effect of community DOTS on treatment outcomes by TB surveillance data

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to evaluate effects of community DOTS on treatment outcome by cohort data derived from TB surveillance system and to find further problems. SUBJECTS: New sputum smear positive pulmonary TB patients registered in 2003 and 1998 under standard course regimens. METHODS: In Japan, DOTS as a method of directly observed treatment by Short Course Chemotherapy is divided into hospital DOTS and community DOTS. Hospital DOTS is to observe hospitalized patients' drug taking directly by hospital staff such as nurses, pharmacists or other hospital staff. Community DOTS is to observe or confirm discharged patients' drug taking by several methods such as direct observation at facility or patient's home, confirmation through checking treatment notes and examining empty blister packages and so on. TB patients were categorized to following 3 groups by available methods of community DOTS. Treatment outcome of patients registered in 2003 was compared with outcome of patients registered in 1998 as the control group before the introduction of community DOTS. Group 1: TB patients under PHC where at least daily observation DOTS (daily observation of drug taking at clinic or PHC to TB patients with risk factors of defaulting such as homeless, alcohol abuse, past history of default and so on) is available. Group 2: TB patients under PHC where home-visit DOTS (home-visit for observation of drug taking to the elderly TB patients who have risk to forget to take TB medicines regularly) only is available or, PHC where home-visit DOTS and confirmation DOTS (periodical confirmation of drug taking to TB patients without risk of defaulting) is available. Group 3: TB patients under PHC where only confirmation DOTS is available. Group 4: TB patients under PHC where community DOTS is not available. In addition, high death rate of patients under public assistance is analyzed. RESULTS: In group 1 with daily observation DOTS, TB patients under social or national health insurance showed higher treatment success rate and lower defaulter rate. TB patients with insurance for aged showed lower defaulter rate but high death rate due to old age did not improve. Patients under public assistance showed relatively lower defaulter rate. In group 2 with home-visit DOTS, TB patients with national health insurance and insurance for aged showed rather lower defaulter rate. Cohort evaluation of TB patients under group 3 with confirmation DOTS and group 4 without community DOTS is difficult as high rate of unknown treatment result. TB patients receiving public assistance showed lower death rate than patients requiring but not receiving public assistance. Patients detected at clinic and hospitals showed higher death rate than other patients detected by screening for high risk groups and so on. CONCLUSION: Daily observation DOTS and home-visit DOTS were effective to improve success rate and defaulter rate but effect of confirmation DOTS was not proved due to lack of information. High death rate of patients with insurance for aged in all groups and lack of treatment results in group 3 and 4 were problems to be solved in the future. In order to avoid TB death among TB patients under public assistance, screening for homeless people as high risk groups, earlier detection and referral system of TB symptomatics and improvement of coverage in public assistance might be effective and be tried.     

Outcomes and problems of DOTS strategy in Japan

The DOTS strategy promoted by the World Health Organization (WHO) was applied in 183 countries in 2004. The DOTS coverage, defined as the percentage of the population living in areas where health services have adopted DOTS, was 83% globally in 2004, but it was 71% in Japan. The global 2005 targets for tuberculosis (TB) control are to detect at least 70% of infectious TB cases and cure 85% of those cases detected. According to the most recent WHO annual report, the DOTS case detection rate in 2004 was 45% in Japan whereas the global average of it was 53%. The treatment success rate, defined as the percentage of patients (in the 2003 cohort) who are cured or who complete treatment, was 82% globally, but it was 76% in Japan. This relatively low achievement is attributed to the fact that public health centers in some districts operated insufficient monitoring system for evaluation of the treatment outcome by cohort analysis. However, the treatment success rate will not be improved easily because more than half of new TB patients in Japan are old people who tend to have various complications. The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare demonstrated the framework of the DOTS Japan version in 2003 to promote the DOTS strategy with collaboration between hospitals, public health centers and welfare organization. The new strategy includes the program for treatment of TB inpatients and the community-based program for outpatients. The latter program called "community DOTS" is classified into three types according to the risk of treatment interruption with an individual patient. The Japanese Society for Tuberculosis should urge the government (at central and regional levels) to enhance political commitment to accelerate activities for TB elimination. It is necessary that the central government build a new public funding system to improve the cure rate under the DOTS Japan version. The local government should strengthen the function of public health centers not only to secure the quality of monitoring system for evaluation of the treatment outcome but to develop human resources who are able to collaborate with public health nurses in promoting the community-based DOTS program.     

Incidence and risk factors for pulmonary tuberculosis among the poor in the northern region of Poland

SETTING: The falling trends in pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) incidence observed in European countries may be due both to an improving epidemiological situation and to a shift of tuberculosis (TB) towards socially important subpopulations; this trend may cause some TB cases to go unnoticed. Identification of such risk groups should be the basis for prevention programmes aimed at containing the spread of the disease. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the incidence and risk factors for PTB among the poor. DESIGN: The study material was based on the data of 7380 people living in poverty, including 243 homeless adults, aged between 18 and 96 years. Potential medical and socio-economic risk factors were evaluated with regard to PTB incidence. RESULTS: The TB incidence rate in the group studied was estimated at 730 per 100,000 population. The main risk factor was homelessness, with a TB incidence rate in the homeless group of 4290/100,000. According to our data, socio-economic factors correlated much more closely with a final TB diagnosis than subjective disease symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Efficient TB control requires prevention programmes aimed at systematic monitoring of the homeless. A population with such a high proportion of TB patients is a dangerous source of TB.     

Tuberculosis infection in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and the effect of infliximab therapy

OBJECTIVE: According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the 1999 and 2000 incidence rates for tuberculosis (TB) in the US population were 6.4 and 5.8, respectively, per 100,000 persons. Recently, reports of TB following infliximab administration have raised questions regarding the rate of TB in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) generally and in those treated with infliximab in clinical practice. We undertook this study to determine the baseline rate of TB in RA prior to the introduction of infliximab and to determine the rate of TB among those currently receiving infliximab. METHODS: We surveyed patients with questionnaires, followed by detailed validation from medical records and physician reports. In study 1, we evaluated 10,782 RA patients in 1998-1999 prior to the widespread use of infliximab. In study 2, we evaluated 6,460 infliximab-treated patients in 2000-2002. RESULTS: In study 1, the lifetime rate of TB was 696 per 100,000 patients (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 547-872). Of these cases, 76.8% occurred prior to the onset of RA. During the period of prospective followup, 1 case of TB developed during 16,173 patient-years of followup, yielding a rate of 6.2 cases (95% CI 1.6-34.4) per 100,000 patients. In study 2, the TB incidence rate among infliximab-treated patients was 52.5 cases (95% CI 14.3-134.4) per 100,000 patient-years of exposure. Three of the 4 cases occurred in patients with a history of TB exposure, and no cases occurred in persons with recent TB skin tests or prophylaxis. CONCLUSION: The rate of TB is not increased in RA patients generally. Among infliximab-treated patients, the rate is 52.5 cases (95% CI 14.3-134.4) per 100,000 patient-years of exposure. A thorough medical history regarding TB, as well as tuberculin testing and radiographic examination (if indicated), should be an essential component of anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy.     

滨州市2001～2010年肺结核发病情况及DOTS策略实施的效果

目的了解滨州市《规划》实施情况,评价DOTS策略的执行效果。方法通过对2001年～2010年登记管理的病人,以病人登记本、月报、季报和年报为来源,进行患病登记率、流行特征、DOTS策略执行情况进行分析。结果 2001年～2010年登记患病率为35.65/10万,新涂阳登记率24.39/10万;治愈率为92.07%;避免63 164人感染结核菌,避免5 667人发病。结论滨州市积极推行现代结核病控制策略,结核病人的发现率和治愈率显著提高。     

Tuberculosis annual report 2009. Series 1. Summary of TB notification statistics in 2009

Annual reports of tuberculosis (TB) statistics in Japan have been compiled mainly using the output of the database obtained through the nationwide computerized tuberculosis surveillance system which has been operated since 1987. This system has been revised several times, with the latest revision conducted in 2007 when much new information was added. Therefore, a plan was drawn up to provide TB epidemiological statistics in Japan on "Kekkaku" and a series of ten reports was already issued as "TB Annual Report 2008". This is the first report of a new series for "TB Annual Report 2009". The report can be summarized as follows. The TB notification (incidence) rate fell below 20 per 100,000 in 2007 and continued to decline, reaching 19.0 in 2009. However, 24,170 TB patients were newly notified in 2009. For sputum smear positive pulmonary TB, the patient count was 9,675 with an incidence rate of 7.6 per 100,000 in 2009. Since June 2007, it has been legally compulsory to notify latent TB infections (LTBI) requiring treatment; the number in 2009 was 4119 cases.     

Tuberculosis in Asia

1. Philippines: The development, expansion and maintenance of pilot area activities: Cristina B. Giango (Technical Division, Cebu Provincial Health Office, the Philippines) In 1994, the Department of Health developed the new NTP policies based on WHO recommendations and started a pilot project in Cebu Province in collaboration with the Japan International Cooperation Agency. To test its feasibility and effectiveness, the new NTP policies were pre-tested in one city and one Rural Health Unit. The test showed a high rate of three sputum collection (90%), high positive rate (10%), and high cure rate (80%). Before the new guidelines were introduced, the new policy was briefed, a baseline survey of the facility was conducted, equipment was provided, and intensive training was given. Recording/Reporting forms and procedures were also developed to ensure accurate reporting. Supervision, an important activity to ensure effective performance, was institutionalized. Laboratory services were strengthened, and a quality-control system was introduced in 1995 to ensure the quality of the laboratory services. With the implementation of DOTS strategy, barangay health workers were trained as treatment partners. In partnership with the private sector, the TB Diagnostic Committee was organized to deliberate and assess sputum negative but X-ray positive cases. The implementation of the new NTP guidelines in Cebe Province has reached a satisfactory level, the cure rate and positive rate have increased, and laboratory services have improved. Because of its successful implementation, the new NTP guidelines are now being used nationwide. 2. Nepal: The DOTS Strategy in the area with hard geographic situation: Dirgh Singh Bam (National Tuberculosis Center, Nepal) Three groups of factors characterize the population of Nepal: 1) Socio-cultural factors, e.g. migration, poverty, language; 2) Environmental factors, e.g. geography and climate; and 3) Political factors, prisoners and refugee populations. These factors pose particular problems for implementing DOTS in various ways. Socio-cultural and environmental factors are particularly important in Nepal, and several measures have been developed to overcome these difficulties. One is active community participation through the DOTS committee. The committee consists of a group of motivated people, including social workers, political leaders, health services providers, journalists, teachers, students, representatives of local organizations, medical schools and colleges, industries, private practitioners, and TB patients. One DOTS committee is formed in every treatment center. A key role of the DOTS committee is to identify local problems and their solutions. It increases public awareness about TB and DOTS; supports people with TB in the community by providing treatment observers and tracing late patients; and encourages cooperation among health institutions, health workers, NGOs, and political leaders. The case finding rate is now 69%, and nearly 95% of diagnosed TB cases are being treated under DOTS. The treatment success rate of new smear-positive cases is nearly 90%. Thus, DOTS increases the case finding and treatment success. 3. Cambodia: HIV/TB and the health sector reform: Tan Eang Mao (National Center for Tuberculosis and Leprosy Control, Cambodia) Cambodia is one of the 23 high burden countries of tuberculosis in the world. Moreover, HIV/AIDS has been spreading rapidly since 1990s, which is worsening the tuberculosis epidemics. To cope with the burden, Cambodia has started implementation of DOTS in 1994 and has expanded it to most of public hospitals across the country by 1998. NTP of Cambodia is now enjoying high cure rate of more than 90%. However, due to the constraints such as weak infrastructure and the poverty, it is proved that many of TB sufferers do not have access to the TB services, resulting in still low case detection rate. It is for this reason that the NTP has decided to expand DOTS to health center and community level based on the new health system. Its pilot program that has been carried out in collaboration with JICA and WHO since 1999 has achieved promising results with high detection and cure rates. All of the over 900 health centers across the country will be involved in DOTS strategy by 2005. In the fight against TB/HIV, National Center for TB Control is providing free TB screening for PLWH (people living with HIV/AIDS), and it is developing a comprehensive plan of TB/HIV care including home delivery DOT services. 4. China: The World Bank Project and the Prevalence Survey in China: Hong Jin DuanMu (National Tuberculosis Control Center, China) Since 1992, China has utilized a World Bank loan to implement TB control projects among 560 million people in 13 provinces. Free diagnosis and treatment services have been provided to all patients, and a fully supervised standard short-course chemotherapy was applied to all diagnosed tuberculosis patients. In 1999, more than 190,000 smear-positive cases, ten times the number in 1992, were detected, and the registration rate of new cases reached 30 per 100,000 population. From 1992 to 1999, a total of 1.40 million smear-positive TB patients were discovered. The cure rate of smear-positive TB patients has been improved to an overall cure rate of 93.6%. The cure rates for the new cases and re-treatment patients were 95.1% and 89.6%, respectively. The fourth nationwide random survey for the epidemiology of tuberculosis was conducted in 2000. The prevalence of active tuberculosis was 367/100,000, the prevalence of infectious tuberculosis was 160/100,000, and the prevalence of smear-positive tuberculosis was 122/100,000. The tuberculosis mortality was 9.8/100,000. 5. Vietnam: The road to reaching the Global Target: Le Ba Tung (Pham Ngoc Thach Tuberculosis and Lung Disease Center, Vietnam) TB control activities started in 1957 and were reorganized in 1986 with the technical assistance of IUATLD, KNCV and material assistance of Medical Committee Netherlands Vietnam (MCNV). The New National TB Control Program follows the main directives of WHO and IUATLD's procedures of case-finding, chemotherapy and management. Passive case-findings are based on sputum smear. Chemotherapy with priority for smear positive cases is 3SHZ/6S2H2 for new cases and 3HRE/6H2R2E2 for retreated cases, which is undertaken with directly observed therapy (DOT strategy) mainly at commune health posts. Since 1989, DOTS strategy with 2SHRZ/6HE for new cases and 2SHRZE/1HRZE/5H3R3E3 for retreated cases has gradually been introduced in districts and communes of every province. In 1995, the government established the National and Provincial TB Control Steering Committees and has provided incentives for detected smear positive cases and cured smear positive cases. The government has also started strengthening the program of managerial and supervisory capacity for TB staff and has promoted the cooperation of all associated organizations of TB control. The WHO global surveillance and monitoring project reports that in 2000 Vietnam reached the global target, i.e., 99.8% population covered by DOTS with 80% of expected new smear positive cases being detected and a high cure rate ranging from 85.3% in 1989 to 90.3% in 1999. A distinguishing aspect of TB control in Vietnam is the effective international partnerships combined with high political commitment of the government nationally and provincially as well as active participation of all organizations in the community.     

DOTS in Japan--Tokyo area]

The resurgence of tuberculosis has required a successful strategy to control TB in Japan. The World Health Organization has recommended the so-called DOTS (Directly Observed Therapy, Short-Course) strategy since 1995 and DOTS has been used with great success not only in many developing countries, but also in many developed countries. In Tokyo, especially in urban areas with a high prevalence of TB, DOT has been started. Using DOT, Sanya in Taito-ku (ward) and Arakawa-ku (ward), have shown high treatment completion--more than 90% since 1997. In 2000, other health care offices in Shinjuku-ku (ward), Yokohama city, Kawasaki city and Nagoya city started DOT for groups of homeless with TB. Presently, DOT is applied only to homeless people. However, the number of people who need DOT is much higher, due to poor adherence. It is also important to reconsider cost-efficiency for TB control in Japan.     

高州市实施结核病控制项目十年效果评价

目的　高州市实施结核病控制项目的评价。方法　因症就诊胸透筛选痰检确诊病人 ,按统一化疗方案治疗 ,实行全程督导管理。结果　 10年间共接诊可疑肺结核症状者 2 0 12 4人 ,可疑者检痰率为 37.77% ,发现活动性肺结核 5 10 8例 ,其中涂阳肺结核、新发涂阳肺结核分别为 3971和 3317例。涂阳登记率由 13/ 10万提高到 33/10万 ;初治涂阳治愈率达 97.71%、复治涂阳治愈率达 84 .10 %。结论　 10年来结核病控制水平全面提高 ,是实施DOTS现代结核病控制策略的结果。     

Epidemiology of tuberculosis and leprosy, Sabah, Malaysia

The objectives in this epidemiology review are to measure and report the extent of morbidity and mortality due to tuberculosis (TB), the proportion of new sputum smear positive cases in districts and the status of cohort analysis as of 1999. As for leprosy, the main objective is to determine morbidity and the treatment outcomes of Multiple Drug Therapy (MDT). Based on the results obtained, a comprehensive action plan for prevention, control and monitoring of tuberculosis and leprosy cases and patients is being produced and implemented throughout the state. The analysis concentrated on patients diagnosed at all out-patient units and admitted in all of the state's hospitals. The patient particulars were recorded using a standardized format based on TB and Leprosy Health Management Information System (TB HMIS). TB was the second highest by notification of communicable diseases in Malaysia in 2001. 29% or about one-third of the national TB cases are from Sabah. However, it has been noted that there was an average decline of 2.6% in annual notification since 10 years ago to date. There was also a reduction of 11.4% in 2001 as compared to annual notification in 2000. Immigrants contribute more than 24% in detection of new cases since 1990. Treatment success rate in term of completion of treatment to date is 82%. Mortality rate has steadily declined from 14 deaths to 7 deaths per 100,000 population. Leprosy in Sabah also contributes to 30% of the yearly total caseload of Malaysia and has the highest notification rate of 2 per every 100,000 population as compared to other states. The average registered leprosy cases over the past 5 years are 239 cases and the prevalence rate is 0.7/10,000 population. The state has successfully achieved its goal to decrease leprosy as per the World Health Organization (WHO) goal of yearly overall prevalence rate of less than 1 case for every 10,000 population. However, the districts of Kudat, Tawau, Lahad Datu, Kota Kinabalu and Semporna are still within the prevalence rate of more than one per 10,000 population. This review highlights some interesting findings which can be incorporated into the State and Districts action plans and strategies. It is also noted that in order to translate National Plans and Strategies into effective action at the community level, health workers need relevant up-to-date knowledge of the pattern of health and disease, and of their determinants, in each district. The Sabah Health Department continues to organize and support programs related to management and control of tuberculosis and leprosy to progressively reduce the incidence of these diseases in the community by breaking the chain of transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. leprae, respectively.     

Factors related to the slowdown in the reduction of the tuberculosis incidence rate in Osaka City--structure of the high incidence rate of tuberculosis in Osaka City analyzed by administrative-ward group, five-year period and age group

The tuberculosis incidence rate in Osaka City is the highest in Japan. We analyzed the incidence rate in Osaka City in five-year period from 1978 to 1997, namely, 1978-1982 (period I), 1983-1987 (period II), 1988-1992 (period III), and 1993-1997 (period IV). Until the first half of 1980, the tuberculosis incidence rate in Osaka City had been dropping every year, but the rate of decline has been slowed substantially or even stopped since 1983. The incidence rate ratio of Osaka City compared with the national rate was 2.0 to 2.3 from 1970 to 1975, but it has been increasing from 1983 and is now higher than 3. We divided 24 wards of Osaka City into five groups based on selected employment indicators of population 15 years of age and over of 1995 National Census. Group A consists of two wards characterized by extremely high unemployment rate, Group B of four wards by high unemployment rate and high rate of manufacturing workers, Group C of six wards by high rate of non-manufacturing workers (tertiary industry workers), Group D of five wards by high rate of manufacturing workers, and Group E of seven wards by residential areas. The incidence rate of Group A had been declining during periods I and II but started to rise after period III. The rates of Group B and C had been declining from period I to II but the decline slowed down substantially even for every age class in periods III and IV. The incidence rates of Groups D and E have been falling. The incidence rate of the 50-69 year-old age group has been increasing substantially. The proportion of newly registered patients in Group A to all patients of Osaka City increased from 25.2% in period I to 32.7% in period IV. The number of newly registered patients of the 40-69 age class in Group A accounted for 45.1% of that in Osaka City in period IV. The slowdown in the reduction of the tuberculosis incidence rate has occurred not in all, but in only a few wards and it is a typical phenomenon of the middle-aged in those wards. It would be worth investigating whether a substantial decline in the tuberculosis incidence rate in Osaka City cannot be achieved by means of uniform control measures for all wards. Intensified tuberculosis control measures should focus on patients in specific wards and age groups.     

Molecular epidemiologic study of tuberculosis--a study on isolates of M. tuberculosis in southern half of Osaka Prefecture

Restriction fragment length polymorphism, RFLP or DNA fingerprinting technique provides a very useful tool for the study of epidemiology of tuberculosis transmission in human. We performed RFLP analysis with the IS6110 insertion sequence of the organisms isolated from culture-positive patients who visited our Hospital during the period from January to December 2001. Our Hospital covers patients living in southern half of Osaka Prefecture including a part of Osaka City, which is the highest TB prevalence area in Japan. The number of copies of IS6110 per isolate ranged from 1 to 21. Most isolates (67%) carried 10 to 15 copies. Of 410 available isolates during the year of 2001, 131 (32%) belonged to a cluster and 279 (68%) did not. The clusters comprised one matching isolate in minimum to 13 isolates in maximum and had a total of 49 distinct RFLP patterns. The average age of the clustered cases was 52.1 years and 64% cases belonged to patients with ages younger than 60 years. Above findings suggest that many cases of tuberculosis in southern part of Osaka Prefecture result from recent transmission. It remains to be elucidated, however, how and where these recent infections occurred in these clustered cases.     

Tuberculosis annual report 2009 --Series 4. Elderly TB

In 2009 the tuberculosis (TB) incidence rates of the elderly population aged 65-74, 75-84 and 85 or older were 26.5, 63.4 and 98.1 per 100,000 in Japan, respectively. The TB incidence rate of those aged 65-79 showed a substantial decrease compared to 2000, with the rate decrease of those aged 85 or older being less pronounced. The proportion of TB cases aged 65 or older among all TB patients increased 1.6 times to 58.0% in 2009 from 36.8% in 1987; in particular, the proportion of those aged 80 or older increased 3.6 times to 28.8% from 7.9% in 1987. The proportion of elderly TB cases showed substantial differences between prefectures. The proportion of extra-pulmonary TB among elderly female TB patients aged 65-74 was 34.3% (22.4% for female TB patients aged 15-64). The proportion of bacillary TB among elderly pulmonary TB (PTB) patients was larger than that of young patients, but the proportion of cavitary PTB among elderly PTB patients was smaller than that of young PTB patients. The proportion of TB patients whose cases did not include respiratory symptoms increased with age. Among this group, the proportions of those aged 65-74, 75-84 and 85 or older were 15.9%, 21.3% and 22.7%, respectively. The elderly TB "patient's delay" was shorter than young TB "patient's delay", although the "doctor's delay" for elderly TB patients was longer than that for young TB patients. Most TB patients including elderly TB patients were detected upon their visit to a medical institution with some symptoms; in the case of elderly TB, more patients were detected as outpatients or inpatients for diseases other than TB. The prognosis of newly notified TB patients in 2008 was followed up until the end of 2009. Among TB patients aged 65 or older, 27.6% died within one year and 15.5% died within 3 months. The proportion of death showed a substantial increase with age; the increase was particularly accelerated among those aged 75 years or older.