重型颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出的防治

目的 探讨重型颅脑损伤术中发生急性脑膨出的防治措施.方法 对36例重型颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出的形成原因等资料进行回顾性分析.结果 术中迟发性颅内血肿、弥漫性脑肿胀、严重广泛脑挫裂伤等是重型颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出的主要原因.结论 针对不同病因采取相应的防治措施,尽快彻底清除迟发性血肿,使用过度换气、脱水剂等降低颅内压,充分减压、控制血压等措施,可提高患者的存活率.     

重型颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出72例临床分析

目的探讨颅脑损伤开颅术中急性脑膨出的原因和防治措施。方法对近年来手术中出现脑膨出的72例重型颅脑损伤病人进行回顾性分析。总结其形成原因及易发因素,比较各种防治措施的疗效。结果术中迟发性颅内血肿形成急性弥漫性脑肿胀、脑组织缺氧和休克、脑疝时间过长、严重脑挫裂伤等是颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出的主要原因,彻底清除颅内血肿、缓慢降低颅内压、术中过度换气、应用脱水剂、控制血压等是防治术中脑膨出的有效措施。结论针对不同病因采取相应的措施,可防治重型颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出,取得较好疗效,降低病死率。     

重型颅脑损伤急性脑膨出术中死亡1例并相关文献复习

目的探讨重型颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出的原因及防治对策。方法分析1例典型的重型颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出患者的临床资料,并复习关于术中急性脑膨出形成原因及防治的文献。结果本例患者开颅术中发生急性脑膨出,在术中死亡。结论迟发性颅内血肿、弥漫性脑肿胀及大面积脑梗死是术中形成急性脑膨出的主要原因,术前正确评估及术中采取相应的对策可有效防治急性脑膨出,提高患者的生存率。     

重型颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出72例临床分析

目的探讨颅脑损伤开颅术中急性脑膨出的原因和防治措施。方法对近年来手术中出现脑膨出的72例重型颅脑损伤病人进行回顾性分析。总结其形成原因及易发因素，比较各种防治措施的疗效。结果术中迟发性颅内血肿形成急性弥漫性脑肿胀、脑组织缺氧和休克、脑疝时间过长、严重脑挫裂伤等是颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出的主要原因，彻底清除颅内血肿、缓慢降低颅内压、术中过度换气、应用脱水剂、控制血压等是防治术中脑膨出的有效措施。结论针对不同病因采取相应的措施，可防治重型颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出，取得较好疗效，降低病死率。     

重型颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出的临床分析及术中对策

目的探讨重型颅脑损伤开颅手术中急性脑膨出的形成原因及术中对策。方法回顾分析59例术中出现脑膨出的重型颅脑损伤病人的受伤机制、临床表现、CT特征,总结脑膨出形成原因。结果按GOS标准,治疗后6个月评定治疗效果,恢复良好13例,中残15例,重残8例,死亡23例。结论迟发性颅内血肿、急性脑肿胀、低血压、脑缺氧、长时间脑疝是重型颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出的主要原因,正确判断脑膨出的性质,采取相应的术中对策是治疗术中脑膨出的有效措施。     

重型颅脑损伤术中B超对迟发性颅内血肿的诊治

目的探讨重型颅脑损伤术中B超对迟发性颅内血肿诊治的效果。方法回顾性分析重型颅脑损伤开颅手术中出现急性脑膨出的39例患者采用实时术中B超探查的方法,并根据检查结果采取相应的治疗方法。结果术中B超发现迟发性颅内血肿23例,其中同侧脑挫裂伤灶脑内血肿5例,对侧硬膜外血肿14例,对侧脑内血肿3例,对侧硬膜下血肿1例;多发性血肿11例。患者治愈12例,中残3例,重残4例,死亡4例,死亡率17.4%(4/23)。结论重型颅脑损伤开颅术中出现急性脑膨出应首先考虑迟发颅内血肿的存在,并行术中B超扫描,迅速定位血肿的部位,及时手术治疗,可改善其预后。     

重型颅脑损伤术中并发急性脑膨出原因分析与综合治疗

目的探讨重型颅脑损伤开颅血肿清除术中急性脑膨出的原因及综合治疗措施。方法回顾分析42例术中出现脑膨出的重型颅脑损伤病人受伤机制、临床表现、CT扫描结果,总结脑膨出的原因。结果按GOS标准,治疗后6个月评定治疗结果,恢复良好6例,中残8例,重残9例,植物生存2例,死亡17例。急性弥漫性脑肿胀、迟发性颅内血肿形成、脑组织缺血、缺氧和低血压、长时间脑疝、严重脑挫裂伤是颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出的主要原因,采取综合治疗是防治术中脑膨出的有效措施。结论结合临床和CT扫描可判定术中脑膨出发生的可能性,对各种原因所致术中急性脑膨出及时采取相应综合措施可获良效。     

在颅脑损伤手术中实时B超对急性脑膨出的应用研究

目的在颅脑损伤手术中用实时B超对急性脑膨出的原因和临床特点进行分析,探讨术中实时B超的应用价值。方法对26例术中出现急性脑膨出的重型颅脑损伤患者行术中实时B超扫描,17例术后行颅脑CT扫描对比分析。结果 9例实时B超发现迟发性颅内血肿,并及时手术清除血肿,获得良好疗效,死亡1例;另外17例术后结合颅脑CT,7例为急性弥漫性脑肿胀,术后疗效差,死亡6例;由脑挫伤引起的术中脑水肿、脑膨出共8例,无死亡;2例为脑梗死,无死亡。术中实时B超可以准确诊断术中迟发性颅内血肿,对脑室和中线结构形态可以准确诊断;从天幕上对天幕下结构观察基本无意义。结论迟发性颅内血肿、急性弥漫性脑肿胀、脑挫伤、脑梗死等均可引起术中急性脑膨出,各有其不同的膨出过程。术中实时B超可以快捷准确地判断脑膨出的原因,从而帮助医生快速准确地决策和处理,以改善预后。     

重型颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出38例分析

目的分析重型颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出的临床特点。方法将重型颅脑损伤术中出现急性脑膨出的38例病人进行回顾性分析,总结其形成原因及易发条件,比较各种防治措施的效果。结果迟发性血肿、手术处理不当、急性脑肿胀等是颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出形成的主要原因,正确的手术处理、缓慢的降低颅内压、控制性低血压、过度换气等是防治术中急性脑膨出的有效措施。结论应根据形成原因的不同而采取相应的措施防治颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出。     

重型颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出原因分析及防治（附89例报告）

目的:探讨颅脑损伤手术中急性脑膨出的形成原因及有效的防治措施;方法,对手术中出现脑膨出的89例颅脑损伤病人进行回顾性分析,总结其形成原因及易发征象,比较各种防治措施的疗效;结果:术中迟发性颅内血肿的形成、急性弥漫性脑肿胀、脑组织缺氧和低血压、长时间脑疝、严重脑挫裂伤等是颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出的主要原因,彻底清除颅内血肿、缓慢降低颅内压、术中过度通气、使用脱水剂、适当控制血压等是防治术中脑膨出的有效措施。结论:针对不同病因采取相应措施可防治颅脑损伤术中脑膨出,取得较好疗效。     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Neonatal Seizures: Problems in Diagnosis and Classification

Summary: The clinical identification of neonatal seizures is critical for the recognition of brain dysfunction; however, diagnosis is often difficult because of the poorly organized and varied nature of these behaviors. Current classification systems are limited in their ability to communicate motor, autonomic, and electroencephalo-graphic features of seizures precisely and to provide a basis for uniform effective diagnosis, therapy, and determination of prognosis. Recent investigations of neonates, utilizing bedside electroencephalographic/polygraphic/ video monitoring techniques, have provided the basis for improved diagnosis and classification of seizures in the newborn. These studies have demonstrated that not all clinical phenomena currently considered to be seizures require electrocortical epileptiform activity for their initiation or elaboration. In addition, the specific clinical character of the phenomena considered to be seizures, the clinical state of the infant, and the character of the EEG indicate the probable pathophysiological mechanisms involved and suggest probable etiologies, prognosis, and therapy. Similarities between animal models that demonstrate reflex physiology and neonates with motor automatisms and tonic posturing suggest that these clinical behaviors may not be epileptic in origin but, rather, primitive movements of progression and posture mediated by brainstem mechanisms. Although not all clinical behaviors currently considered to be neonatal seizures may have similar pathophysiological mechanisms, they are clinically significant because they all indicate brain dysfunction.     

Valproate Monotherapy in the Management of Generalized and Partial Seizures

Summary: For decades, therapeutic tradition has promoted the concept of polypharmacy in the management of epilepsy. In recent years, however, studies have shown that, for most patients, monotherapy can provide comparable or better seizure control than administration of multiple anticonvulsants, while diminishing the potential for adverse reactions, drug interactions, and poor compliance. Valproate is an important monotherapeutic agent that is highly effective in the control of idiopathic primary and secondarily generalized epilepsies, and partial seizures that do not generalize. Comparative studies have found that valproate is at least as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in the treatment of generalized and partial seizures. Given the similar efficacy, other factors such as pharmacokinetics and side effects may therefore determine anticonvulsant selection for monotherapy.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Un nouveau cadre conceptuel de travail pour la psychiatrie

In an attempt to place psychiatric thinking and the training of future psychiatrists more centrally into the context of modern biology, the author outlines the beginnings of a new intellectual framework for psychiatry that derives from current biological thinking about the relationship of mind to brain. The purpose of this framework is twofold. First, it is designed to emphasize that the professional requirements for future psychiatrists will demand a greater knowledge of the structure and functioning of the brain than is currently available in most training programs. Second, it is designed to illustrate that the unique domain which psychiatry occupies within academic medicine, the analysis of the interaction between social and biological determinants of behavior, can best be studied by also having a full understanding of the biological components of behavior.