Pediatric varicocele embolization

Varicocele is a very common condition. Although some patients may have pain, it is usually asymptomatic. Treatment of adolescent and pediatric patients is based on the desire to prevent testicular dysfunction and infertility that may be irreversible in adulthood. Venous embolization of the spermatic vein is an effective and minimally invasive method to occlude the varicocele and is known to improve testicular size and function. Embolization can be optimized by use of sclerosant, such as sodium tetradecyl sulfate (STS) foam or ethanol to permanently occlude the internal spermatic vein. About 10 to 15% of patients have recurrent varicocele after embolization. This is usually due to collateral vessels, such as from the right spermatic vein or the splanchnic veins. Embolizing as low as possible, while preventing pampiniform phlebitis by externally compressing the external inguinal ring, and empiric bilateral embolization appear to have the best outcome for preventing recanalization. Complications of varicocele embolization are uncommon. They include pampiniform phlebitis and venous thromboembolism into the renal vein or pulmonary artery.     

Transcatheter embolization of testicular vein for varicocele testis

Percutaneous transcatheter embolization of the testicular vein was performed on 28 patients with angiographically proven varicocele testis. In 2 patients bilateral and in 26 only the left vein was embolized using 3-, 5-, or 8-mm stainless steel coils. All patients had clinically palpable varicoceles and male infertility. The grade of varicoceles improved after embolization in 23 of 28 cases (82%). Effective sperm count increased significantly from 34.5 +/- 44.6 to 65.1 +/- 71.0 following embolization. However, pregnancy was achieved only in one of 28 cases. Technically, the basilic vein approach was felt to be superior to the femoral vein or jugular vein approach for this procedure.     

Ethanol for hepatic artery embolization

Reflecting on the studies by O'Riordan et al. and Doppman and Girton that are reported in this issue, the authors discuss the safety of using ethanol for hepatic artery embolization (HAE) and stress that the optimal indications for this procedure are still to be established. They indicate that the caution necessary with any technique can direct rather than inhibit action.     

动静脉畸形的无水乙醇栓塞

无水乙醇栓塞治疗动静脉畸形(AVM)已初步取得了令人满意的临床效果并展现出良好的应用前景,从而为彻底治愈AVM提供了一条崭新的途径.但是,无水乙醇栓塞治疗AVM是一项极具挑战性的工作,不恰当应用会引起一系列并发症并可导致严重后果.本文拟对无水乙醇栓塞治疗AVM的机制、技术要点、栓寒治疗后的病理生理变化以及栓塞的并发症及其防治作一叙述.     

Radiation risk estimation in varicocele embolization

Varicocele embolization is performed in healthy young men with normal life expectancy. Therefore, it is essential that the radiation risks associated with the procedure are minimized. The radiation risks associated with varicocele embolization have been estimated retrospectively from dose-area product records in a series of 41 cases and compared with a prospective series of 10 cases. Lithium fluoride dosemeters were used to measure gonad dose in the prospective series. Estimated lifetime fatal cancer risk was of the order of 0.1% in the retrospective series. A seven-fold reduction in median radiation dose was observed in the prospective series. The results indicate that with meticulous attention to technique, substantial reductions in radiation exposure can be achieved.     

Ethanol embolization of vascular malformations

Absolute ethanol was used to treat 20 patients with symptomatic vascular malformations (SVMs) (ie, venous malformations, arteriovenous malformations, and congenital and posttraumatic arteriovenous fistulas) in whom previous surgery or standard embolotherapy had failed or who were not candidates for surgery. All large complex lesions required multiple embolizations as staged procedures. Immediate thrombosis was achieved in all patients; complications (13% of cases) were generally minor and were treated conservatively. Follow-up studies, performed in 19 of 20 patients, showed persistent occlusion of the SVM in all cases. Ethanol embolization of SVMs, performed according to strict techniques, has proved efficacious in SVM management and is emerging as a definitive form of therapy.     

无水乙醇栓塞治疗耳部动静脉畸形

目的 介绍22例耳部动静脉畸形无水乙醇介入栓塞治疗的经验.方法 对22例耳部动静脉畸形患者,通过局部穿刺或经导管内超选择径路达到耳部病变的异常血管团内,根据病变的血管团构筑,采用无水乙醇或稀释乙醇进行栓塞,间隔1个月进行电话随访,间隔3～4个月进行临床随访,根据临床检查或血管造影评价临床效果.结果 22例患者共进行了38次无水乙醇栓塞,每次无水乙醇的用量为4～65 ml.9例病变局限患者,1～2次栓塞后达到临床治愈;13例病变广泛患者,无水乙醇栓塞3～5次后,溃疡愈合,出血停止,耳呜消失或减弱.血管造影见9例异常血管团完全消失;8例血管团消失50%～75%;5例血管闭消失小于50%.最常见的并发症为可逆性局部坏死和水疱形成.结论 无水乙醇栓塞是耳部动静脉畸形安全、有效的治疗方式,并有可能成为首选的治疗方式.     

Ethanol injection for the treatment of hepatic tumours

Percutaneous ethanol injection (PEI) is a relatively new therapeutic technique for the treatment of liver tumours. PEI is now considered a reliable alternative to surgical resection for cirrhotic patients with a single, small hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Intratumoral injection of absolute ethanol, in fact, achieves complete ablation of HCC nodules 3 cm or less in diameter with a high probability. Moreover, PEI is not associated with significant morbidity or mortality and does not damage non-cancerous liver parenchyma. Long-term survival rates of PEI-treated patients were similar to those obtained in matched patients submitted to partial hepatectomy. In large HCC lesions, the anticancer effect of PEI can be significantly enhanced by pretreatment of the tumour with transcatheter arterial chemoembolisation. PEI may also be effectively used to destroy adenomatous hyperplastic nodules in liver cirrhosis, which represent precancerous lesions. The results of PEI in the treatment of liver metastases, in contrast, have been far less encouraging than in the case of HCC, so that PEI is not recommended when other interventional procedures such as radiofrequency electrocautery or interstitial laser photocoagulation are available. Imaging procedure plays a key role in PEI, as they provide a reliable assessment of the therapeutic effect of the procedure. Correspondence to: C. Bartolozzi     

Ethanol embolization of arteriovenous malformations: interim results

PURPOSE: To assess retrospectively the interim results and the complications of ethanol embolization treatment of arteriovenous malformations (AVMs). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Institutional review board approval was obtained for a retrospective review of patient medical and imaging records. Informed consent was not required by the institutional review board. Written consent for the procedure was obtained from all patients after a discussion about the advantages and risks of the procedure. After a general anesthetic was administered, 40 patients (16 male, 24 female; age range, 9-53 years) with inoperable AVMs in the body and extremities underwent staged ethanol embolizations (range, 1-24; median, 3). Pulmonary artery pressure and arterial blood pressure were monitored as ethanol was injected. Ethanol embolizations (50%-100% ethanol mixed with nonionic contrast material) were performed by using transcatheter and/or direct puncture techniques. Ten patients underwent additional coil deployment during ethanol embolization. Clinical follow-up (range, 2-48 months; mean, 14.6 months; median, 12 months) was performed in all patients, and results from imaging follow-up (range, 0-48 months; mean, 8.4 months; median, 6 months) were available from the last treatment session in 28 patients. Therapeutic outcomes were established by evaluating the clinical outcome of symptoms and signs, as well as the degree of devascularization at follow-up angiography. RESULTS: One hundred seventy-five ethanol embolizations were performed in 40 patients. Sixteen (40%) of 40 patients were cured, 11 (28%) had partial remission, seven (18%) had no remission, and one (2%) experienced aggravation. Treatment failed in five patients (12%). Ethanol embolization was considered effective (cure, 16 patients; partial remission, 11 patients) in 27 patients (68%). Eleven patients will need further treatment sessions for residual AVMs. Twenty-one patients (52%) experienced complications. Twenty-seven minor complications (skin and transient peripheral nerve injuries) (27 [15%] of 175 procedures) occurred in 18 (45%) of 40 patients. All minor complications were healed with wound dressing and observation. Five major complications (five [3%] of 175 procedures) occurred in five (12%) of 40 patients, and four patients recovered completely. CONCLUSION: Ethanol embolization has the potential for cure in the management of AVMs of the body and extremities but with acceptable risk of minor and major complications.     

Pain experience during internal spermatic vein embolization for varicocele: comparison of two cyanoacrylate glues

The purpose of this study was to evaluate possible pain sensation differences in patients after retrograde varicocele embolization either with n-butyl-(2)-cyanoacrylate (NBCA) or with n-butyl-(2)-cyanoacrylate + methacryloxysulfolane (NBCA-MS). Transcatheter varicocele embolization was performed in 64 consecutive patients (62 left, two bilateral). Embolization was done with NBCA (n=32) or NBCA-MS (n=32). Immediately after the procedure, patients were asked to evaluate pain during embolization using a visual analog scale (VAS). Statistical analysis was done with Students t test. Mean pain score on VAS was 3.23 (range: 0–8) for NBCA and 3.28 (range 0–9) for NBCA-MS. This difference was not significant (P=0.932). Independently of the type of glue, no difference in pain sensation (P value 0.421) was found between patients younger than 18 (n=29) and patients older than 18 years of age (n=35) (younger than18, mean 3.52; older than 18, mean 3.05). No difference in mean pain experience level (P=0.323) was seen in 11 patients with vessel wall perforation (23.4%) during the procedure (3.89; range: 0–8.5) in comparison with those without perforation (mean pain sensation level: 3.13; range: 0–9). No difference in pain experience was found after transcatheter varicocele embolization either with NBCA or NBCA-MS. Age and vessel wall perforation have no influence on pain sensation independently of the type of glue.     

经导管血管栓塞术对精索静脉曲张患者生育力的影响

目的探讨经导管血管栓塞术对精索静脉曲张患者生育力的影响。方法对37例Ⅱ度以上且伴有精液异常的精索静脉曲张患者使用鱼肝油酸钠加明胶海绵颗粒行选择性精索静脉栓塞术。所有患者均每3个月随访1次,共12个月,观察其阴囊皮肤温度、睾丸体积、精液分析等情况。结果37例患者术后精索静脉曲张消失,均未见复发。左侧睾丸体积从术前的(15．11±2．33)mm3至术后9、12个月时分别增加为(16．38±1．86)mm3(P<0．05)和(16．61±1．81)mm3(P<0．01),右侧睾丸体积术后各期与术前相比差异均无统计学意义(P>0．05)。阴囊左侧皮肤温度从术前的(33．61±0．75)℃至术后3个月降低为(32．28±0．61)℃(P<0．01),但术后3个月以后无明显变化(P>0．05);阴囊右侧皮肤温度术后各期与术前相比差异均无统计学意义(P>0．05)。精子密度从术前的(14．37±8．61)×106个／ml至术后3、6个月时分别增加为(37．61±23．10)×106个／ml(P< 0．01)和(50．93±36．25)×106个／ml(P<0．01)。精子存活率从术前的(44．02±9．86)％至术后3、6个月时分别增加为(65．85±5．99)％(P<0．01)和(69．54±8．51)％(P<0．01)。正常形态精子百分率从术前的(61．45±11．93)％至术后3个月时增加为(72．02±5．21)％(P<0．01)。A+B级精子百分率从术前的(18．05±3．83)％至术后3、6和9个月时分别增加为(30．13±5．95)％(P<0．01)、(33．61±5．34)％和(36．45±6．08)％(P<0．01)。生育力指数从术前的14．73±5．97至术后3、6个月时分别增加为73．76±7．01(P<0．01)和100．62±9．95(P<0．01),但精子密度、精子存活率和生育力指数在术后6个月以后差异无统计学意义(P>0．05),正常形态精子百分率在术后3个月以后无明显变化(P>0．05),A+B级精子百分率在术后9个月以后无明显变化(P>0．05)。精液量和精液pH值于术前及术后各期之间相比差异均无统计学意义(P>0．05)。结论选择性精索静脉栓塞术可提高精索静脉曲张患者的生育力。     

Selective spermatic venography and varicocele embolization in men with circumaortic left renal veins

The presence of variant venous anatomy may increase the technical difficulty of percutaneous varicocele embolization. The authors review their experience performing venography of the left spermatic vein and varicocele embolization in 18 men with circumaortic left renal veins. Selective catheterization of the left spermatic vein was achieved in all but one patient, and all patients with positive venographic results underwent successful embolization. The site of the confluence of the left spermatic vein and the renal vein was variable and it was necessary to use jugular and femoral venous approaches to achieve selective left spermatic vein catheterization. Familiarity with anatomic variations associated with circumaortic renal veins and with embolization techniques from jugular and femoral venous routes facilitates percutaneous varicocele embolization in patients with this variant.     

Ethanol embolization of arteriovenous fistulas: a primary mode of therapy

Arteriovenous fistulas (AVFs) can be posttraumatic or congenital vascular malformations. In the initial arteriographic evaluation, chronic AVFs potentially can be confused with arteriovenous malformations (AVMs). The authors studied five patients with a single AVF and one patient with numerous AVFs. Three patients had undergone surgery for treatment of their AVFs, one patient had undergone isobutyl-2-cyanoacrylate (IBCA) embolization, and two patients had undergone no prior therapy. The AVFs recurred in the three patients who had undergone surgery and in the patient who had undergone IBCA embolization. All patients underwent ethanol embolization of their AVFs. Angiograms obtained immediately after embolization documented closure of all AVFs. At follow-up, none of the embolized lesions have recurred. The authors conclude that ethanol embolotherapy can cure these problematic lesions. Extreme caution, however, must be employed with the use of intravascular ethanol because nontarget embolization can potentially result in tissue devitalization. In this study, two patients developed a small focal area of skin necrosis that did not require skin grafting and healed with conservative management.     

Percutaneous embolization of a left-sided varicocele in a patient with a duplicated inferior vena cava

Anatomic variants of the inferior vena cava (IVC) can make selective catheterization of the spermatic vein difficult. In an attempt to embolize the left varicocele, the authors identified a duplicated IVC on an initial venogram through the right common femoral vein. However, it was not possible to cannulate the left spermatic vein with this conventional approach, necessitating an approach from the right internal jugular vein. The left varicocele was successfully embolized.     

Tailored cognitive testing with provocative amobarbital injection preceding AVM embolization

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Transarterial embolization of cerebral arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) has been associated with postprocedural neurologic complications in 7-39% of patients. We sought to determine whether a method of targeted neurologic and cognitive testing during AVM embolization reduces the incidence of focal cognitive and other neurologic deficits associated with the procedure. METHODS: A cognitive neurologist extensively examined 12 patients prior to AVM embolization. In each patient, a battery of tests tailored to their specific abilities was developed by using stimuli selected from standard and experimental cognitive tests to probe specific brain regions related to the location of the AVM. In each feeder vessel to be embolized, a 50-mg bolus of sodium amobarbital was superselectively administered through a microcatheter; this was followed immediately by neurologic and cognitive testing with the tailored battery. After testing, the position of the microcatheter tip was checked with fluoroscopy. If the provocative test results were negative, the evaluated feeder was embolized with N-butyl cyanoacrylate glue. RESULTS: Although results with 27 of 29 provocative amobarbital injections were negative, results with two injections in two different individuals revealed cognitive deficits during tailored provocative testing. In both, the evoked deficits resolved with dissipation of the amobarbital effect; the feeder vessels were not embolized. Neurologic and cognitive evaluation after each of 27 embolizations revealed no major or minor deficits. CONCLUSION: In our experience, provocative amobarbital testing prior to AVM embolization was helpful in identifying vascular territories where embolization may lead to neurologic and cognitive deficits.