Occult and secondary injuries missed by plain radiography of the cervical spine in blunt trauma patients

Background: Plain radiography does not visualize every cervical spine injury sustained by blunt trauma victims. The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence and types of injuries missed by plain radiographs of the cervical spine and determine how frequently such radiography fails to detect any cervical spine injury. Methods: Images from all radiographic studies performed on blunt trauma victims presenting to 21 participating institutions were reviewed to compile an exhaustive list of all CSIs sustained by each individual. These injuries were then compared with the injuries detected by plain radiography alone. Patients were classified as having a “sentinel” injury if one or more of their injuries were visible on plain radiographs. Patients were classified as having a radiographically “occult” injury if none of their injuries were visible on plain radiographs. The number and types of injuries missed on plain radiographs were then separately tabulated for the sentinel and occult injury groups. Results: Plain radiographs were completed in 570 of 818 victims of acute cervical spine injury and revealed 702 of 1,056 injuries. Plain films failed to detect 98 occult injuries present in 60 patients (10.5 %), and failed to detect 256 secondary injuries in 510 patients (89.5 %) who had a sentinel injury identified. Plain radiographs failed to reveal 79 of 136 (58.1 %) lateral mass injuries and 67 of 105 (63.8 %) lamina injuries, making these the most frequent sites of missed injury. Conclusions: Plain radiographs frequently fail to reveal injuries to the cervical spine, particularly those involving the lamina and lateral mass. The majority of the missed injuries represent secondary injuries in patients with a sentinel injury identified on these films. However, plain films fail to detect any injury in a minority of injured patients.     

Normal cervical spine variations mimicking injuries in children

Evaluation of the cervical spine is a constant problem. This communication deals with the various normal variations and congenital anomalies that are frequently misinterpreted for traumatic lesions. Emphasis is on how to identify these anomalies and how to differentiate them from traumatic injuries of the cervical spine.     

CT scan patterns of articular mass injuries of the lower cervical spine

Traumatic lesions of the cervical articular mass are infrequent, are potentially unstable and often require internal fixation. Standard X-rays and CT images can be difficult to analyze in an emergency situation. Standard X-rays must always be performed first, but CT, particularly helical CT, is the definitive imaging modality. Two-dimensional reformations are performed in all cases, together with 3-D reformations when indicated. We here present a simple and logical analysis based on the normal pattern of the interfacetal joint, which is always made of two pieces of bone, and only two, in a precise order. Post-traumatic deviations from this normal pattern reflect an injury, and there exists an accurate correlation between the CT pattern and the pathologic features.     

Imaging of the congenitally absent cervical pedicle: avoidance of misdiagnosis in a setting of trauma

An enlarged neuroforamen may be due to a congenitally absent cervical pedicle. We report a case initially misdiagnosed as a cervical fracture. CT and MRI are recommended for correct diagnosis and prevention of unwarranted treatment.     

Lateral hyperflexion injuries of the cervical spine

Injuries secondary to lateral hyperflexion forces are an unusual and commonly unrecognized entity. Patients demonstrate a wide range of symptoms and physical findings and may incur years of chronic pain if the lesion is not appreciated. Careful evaluation of historical evidence, mechanism of injury, and physical examination supplements interpretation of frontal and oblique radiographs of the entire cervical spine. Because the majority of patients reviewed sustained more than one fracture, careful scrutiny, especially of the vertebral arch, is recommended.Presented as an exhibit at the American Roentgen Ray Society Meeting, Boston, Massachusetts, September, 1977     

Anterior subluxation of the cervical spine

Anterior subluxation (AS), or hyperflexion sprain, generates a disproportionate level of concern in emergency medicine. Anxiety related to this injury arises from the fact that AS may produce delayed mechanical instability of the cervical spine, with resultant pain and neurological impairment. Furthermore, its radiographic presentation may be very subtle, and it may be impossible to reliably diagnose or exclude this injury using standard screening radiographs. Additional studies, such as flexion–extension (FE) radiography and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging, are often used in the acute setting to assess injury status and radiographically exclude AS injury. There are a number of reasons to discourage this latter practice, which can represent an impossible attempt to “radiographically clear the cervical spine” of blunt trauma patients with “100 % certainty.” This is because AS is an uncommon lesion, and the neurological deficits secondary to delayed instability are almost always minor and transient. Furthermore, AS is usually not entirely occult on screening plain films (which are typically “abnormal” even if in nonspecific ways). Finally, FE imaging, done acutely in the presence of spasm, is probably unable to exclude this diagnosis reliably, even when plain films are normal, and emergent MR, probably the most accurate technique, is not widely available. Risk stratification provides a rational alternative approach for assessing injury status. Low-risk patients may be spared further imaging provided they are given appropriate precautionary return instructions. High-risk patients require emergent evaluation by an experienced spine specialist, and may benefit from advanced imaging. Patients at moderate risk may be best managed with symptomatic treatment, warnings to avoid significant physical activity, and delayed FE imaging and evaluation by a spinal specialist. They should also be instructed to seek immediate medical attention if they develop any indications of delayed instability, including severe pain and /or neurological signs. This stratified approach not only increases the likelihood that delayed subluxation will be recognized before it leads to chronic instability, but frees clinicians and radiologists from the quixotic burden of trying to “clear” the cervical spine with 100 % certainty in the acute setting.     

The role of spiral CT vs plain films in acute cervical spine trauma: a comparative study

Purpose: To compare the diagnostic yield of conventional radiographs versus helical computed tomography (CT) in screening acute trauma patients. Methods: We reviewed 604 trauma patients who presented to our level I trauma emergency room and underwent both conventional radiography and spiral CT of the cervical spine of. Results: Of the 604 patients, 30 (5.13 %) had fractures seen on helical CT, only 10 of which were diagnosed on conventional radiography. Conclusion: In the screening of acute trauma patients, conventional radiography is less sensitive in detecting fractures than helical CT. CT should therefore be considered as a standard modality choice in such cases.     

经高位咽后入路行上颈椎手术的治疗选择

目的 观察经高位咽后入路行上颈椎前路手术的适应证选择及临床效果. 方法 本组男32例,女9例;年龄12～67岁,平均41岁.Hangman骨折21例,C2椎体骨折2例,先天性齿状突不连伴难复性寰枢椎脱位12例,C1,2椎体结核4例,C3骨巨细胞瘤2例.全部患者均采用高位前方咽后入路显露C1～C3,Hangman骨折和C2椎体骨折复位后行C2,3椎间盘切除植骨融合内固定;先天性齿状突不连行前路松解复位、后路寰枢融合;结核行病灶清除,肿瘤行切除重建.创伤患者脊髓损伤按美围脊髓损伤学会(ASIA)标准评定,非创伤患者依据日本骨科学会(JOA)评分、Odom标准评定神经功能. 结果 41例患者均成功显露C1前弓～C3椎体,骨折患者行复位减压融合内固定;结核、肿瘤患者行病灶切除重建.创伤患者脊髓功能正常者无神经功能损害,不全瘫患者神经功能均有部分恢复.非创伤患者神经功能有明显改善,JOA评分由术前8.9分增加至12.5分;Odom评分临床成功率(优/良/可)达到94%.3例出现舌下神经牵拉症状,2例出现面神经刺激症状,无伤口感染. 结论 前方高位咽后入路可充分显露上颈椎,完成复位减压和稳定重建,并最大限度重建颈椎生理功能.     

Imaging of acute cervical spine injuries: review and outlook

Advances in imaging technology have been successfully applied in the emergency trauma setting with great benefit providing early, accurate and efficient diagnoses. Gaps in the knowledge of imaging acute spinal injury remain, despite a vast wealth of useful research and publications on the role of CT and MRI. This article reviews in a balanced manner the main questions that still face the attending radiologist by embracing the current and evolving concepts to help define and provide answers to the following; Imaging techniques -- strengths and weaknesses; what are the implications of a missed cervical spine injury?; who should be imaged?; how should they be imaged?; spinal immobilisation -- help or hazard?; residual open questions; what does all this mean?; and what are the implications for the radiologist? Although there are many helpful guidelines, the residual gaps in the knowledge base result in incomplete answers to the questions posed. The identification of these gaps in knowledge however should act as the initiating stimulus for further research. All too often there is a danger that the performance and productivity of the imaging modalities is the main research focus and not enough attention is given to the two fundamental prerequisites to the assessment of any imaging technology -- the clinical selection criteria for imaging and the level of expertise of the appropriate clinician interpreting the images.     

经关节突螺钉固定治疗下颈椎脱位

目的评价经关节突螺钉技术治疗下颈椎脱位的效果。方法治疗颈椎骨折脱位患者54例,后路使用经关节突螺钉固定,前路减压植骨钢板固定。螺钉入钉点位于上位节段侧块背面中心点偏内上方,向外下方钻孔,外倾25°~30°,下倾30°~40°。钻透上下关节突,拧入3.5 mm钛合金皮质骨螺钉,螺钉长度16~20 mm。小关节间植骨融合。结果随访14~24个月,平均18.8个月。颈椎弧度无丢失,无螺钉松动及神经血管并发症,小关节间植骨全部愈合。结论下颈椎经关节突螺钉安全性好,螺钉抗拔出强度佳,固定确实,固定节段少,植骨融合率高;使用范围广,可用于C6/7节段。但建议结合钢板使用,小关节间隙必须植骨。     

颈椎单侧关节突交锁损伤机制与临床诊治

目的 研究颈椎单侧关节突交锁的损伤机制及临床诊治。方法 两具新鲜成人颈椎标本,采用ＣＭＴ４１０４型电子多功能试验机,分别在侧屈旋转和前屈旋转载荷下模拟颈椎小关节突交锁。并对１１例颈椎单侧关节突交锁患者的诊治情况进行分析。结果 颈椎在侧屈１１７０Ｎ、扭转１５０Ｎ,前屈２０００Ｎ、扭转１２０Ｎ的载荷下均可导致单侧小关节突交锁。但前者比后者容易发生,所需的暴力较小,伴随的损伤较轻。１１例患者中,误诊２     

难以复位合并小关节绞锁的下颈椎脱位的手术治疗

目的探讨难以复位合并小关节绞锁的下颈椎脱位的手术治疗。方法12例下颈椎脱位患者，经三维CT检查证实8例有单侧小关节绞锁，4例双侧小关节绞锁；MRI检查发现，12例患者均有椎间盘损伤，其中4例为椎间盘破裂，8。例为椎间盘突出；经颅骨牵引后未能复位的12例患者，Ⅰ期行前路减压、后路解锁融合固定、前路融合固定手术。结果12例患者术后原有神经症状未加重，小关节绞锁及脱位均得到解除和复位；术后1—2周内大部分(10／12)患者神经功能按改良Frankel分级上升：1例A级→B级(2例A级无变化)，B级→C级2例，C级→D级3例，C级→E级3例，D级→E级1例。住院时间9—19d，平均14d。结论前路减压、后路解锁融合固定、前路融合固定术是治疗难以复位合并小关节绞锁的下颈椎脱位的理想方法。     

Improving the imaging diagnosis of cervical spine injury in the very elderly: implications of the epidemiology of injury

Purpose: To enumerate host and vector factors that affect each phase of cervical spine injury (CSI) among the elderly, and to attribute specific pathoanatomic characteristics of CSI to host and/or vector factors. Methods: Structured review of English literature references selected from MEDLINE keyword search using PUBMED and OVID search engines. Only articles addressing the role of “aging” or being “elderly” (using a variety of definitions) in CSI were included. The following information was abstracted: journal; year of publication; authors' specialty or departmental affiliation; study design; inclusion and exclusion criteria; year(s) of data collection; number of CSI vs. controls; summary findings, including rate estimates, obvious study weaknesses. Results: Seven of 13 articles were medical-record-based case series, most derived from institutional trauma registries. Four were population-based surveys. One was an assessment of Medicare claims data for all-cause trauma and one a review paper. Blunt-force CSI was most commonly related to domestic falls, then to vehicular-pedestrian collisions and finally to vehicular crashes. More than two-thirds of fractures involved CO-C3, especially in individuals with cervical spondylosis and/or osteoporosis. In 15 to 40 % of CO-C3 fractures there is a delay in diagnosis. An adult forme fruste of SCIWORA (spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality) was a relatively common cause of central and anterior cord syndromes in the absence of observable fractures or dislocations. Conclusions: The epidemiology of CSI in elderly patients should inform triage and imaging decisions. Since most CSI diagnostic errors involve the upper cervical spine, additional attention to the radiographic anatomy of the craniocervical junction and diligent search for abnormalities in this region are warranted.     

Improving the cervical spine X-ray in trauma patients utilizing dynamic range compression (DRC) modified digital radiography

Purpose: Inadequate cervical spine X-rays delay diagnosis and treatment and add radiation exposure to trauma patients with suspected cervical spine injury. Digital radiography (DR) with dynamic range compression (DRC) modification can improve the visualization of abnormalities in the cervical spine X-ray. Methods: Two digital hard copy cervical spine X-rays from each of 65 trauma patients were used, both with standard DR processing, and with the second image having the DRC algorithm applied. Blinded readers from emergency medicine, surgery, radiology, and critical care specialties evaluated the films with data analyzed by Student's t-test and ϰ²; P < 0.05. Results: Readers cleared more of the DRC than of the non-DRC images: 41 % vs 30 %, P < 0.001. More vertebral bodies were visualized on DRC than on non-DRC images: 65 % vs 53 % showing C7, P < 0.001. For overall impression of the image quality, DRC images rated higher on a 10-cm visual analog scale than non-DRC: 6.7 vs 4.2, P < 0.001. Conclusions: DRC modification of DR images enabled physicians to evaluate cervical spine X-rays more rapidly and accurately after trauma, requiring fewer repeat films.     

Can CT eliminate the initial portable lateral cervical spine radiograph in the multiple trauma patient? A review of 200 cases

Purpose: This investigation examines whether there is a continued role for the initial screening lateral portable radiograph in patients whose cervical spine is “cleared” by a CT examination. Methods: A retrospective review of 200 multiple trauma patients suspected of cervical spine injury (CSI) was performed. All patients had a screening lateral portable cervical spine radiograph (LPCSR) followed by cervical spine CT (CSCT). All scans were helical and included coronal and sagittal reformations. Reports of both examinations were compared for all patients. For those patients with signs of acute CSI, the two reports were compared to determine whether the LPCSR contained any information affecting patient outcome that was not detected by CSCT. Results: The CSCT showed no signs of acute CSI injury in 190 patients. Ten CSCT scans showed signs of fracture. In these 10 patients, the screening LPSCR showed signs of fracture in 1 patient, question of fracture in 2 patients, and no fracture in 7 patients. No LPCSR demonstrated significant information not seen on the accompanying CSCT. No LPSCR showed a finding that altered patient management prior to CSCT. Conclusion: The data suggest that an initial LPCSR is unnecessary if the patient is having a screening CSCT.     

Nontraumatic spine disorders: part I

This article discusses several critical nontraumatic emergencies that involve the spine. Metastatic disease, infection of the disc and epidural space, acute disc herniation, epidural hematoma, and epidural lipomatosis may all present with symptoms ranging from localized pain to more severe neurologic sequelae. Several of these entities may progress to irreversible myelopathy or death if the diagnosis is not made in a timely manner. Appropriate radiologic evaluation and accurate interpretation are required to guide necessary treatment for these entities. Clinical presentation, etiology, radiologic findings, and pitfalls of interpretation of these conditions and related entities will be presented.     

不同入路手术治疗下颈椎骨折脱位

目的 探讨不同入路手术治疗下颈椎骨折脱位的效果. 方法 选择2002年12月-2012年1月收治的下颈椎骨折脱位患者26例,其中男19例,女7例;年龄27 ～ 62岁,平均39岁.骨折AO分型:B3.1型12例,B3.2型3例,C2.1型2例,C3.1型3例,C3.2型6例.术前脊髓功能Frankel分级:A级6例,B级5例,C级7例,D级6例,E级2例.术前常规颅骨牵引,根据骨折脱位类型和脊髓损伤情况分别选择前方入路、后方入路和前后联合入路行椎管减压植骨融合内固定术.术后定期复查X线片了解骨折脱位矫正、椎体高度恢复和椎间植骨融合,以及术后脊髓功能恢复情况. 结果 术中无大血管损伤或脊髓损伤加重等并发症,术后无切口感染、脑脊液漏、植骨块脱出或内固定断裂塌陷等并发症.术后随访12～ 24个月,平均16个月.本组26例下颈椎骨折脱位均得到矫正,恢复了正常颈椎序列、生理曲度和椎体高度.术后3～6个月椎间植骨均获得骨性愈合,平均融合时间3.5个月.末次随访时Frankel分级:A级6例,B级3例,C级5例,D级5例,E级7例,脊髓功能均有不同程度改善. 结论 应根据下颈椎骨折脱位不同伤情采取合理的手术方式.前路手术可以直接处理椎体或椎间盘损伤并即刻消除颈椎不稳;后路手术可以直接解除关节突脱位交锁,但需排除颈椎间盘损伤以避免复位时加重脊髓损伤;前后联合入路可以同时处理颈椎骨折脱位和椎间盘损伤,但手术创伤和风险较大.     

Cervical spine injury in the very elderly

Background: Elderly patients are known to be at increased risk of cervical spine injuries. This propensity for injury becomes more important as the population of mobile elderly individuals increases. The present study seeks to examine the incidence and spectrum of spine injury among patients aged 80 years or greater, and to examine the efficacy of a decision rule for obtaining cervical spine radiography in this extreme age group. The decision rule would determine whether imaging could be avoided in patients who have none of the following: (1) posterior midline cervical spine tenderness; (2) focal neurological deficit; (3) abnormal level of alertness; (4) evidence of intoxication; or (5) clinically apparent distracting painful injury. Methods: All blunt trauma victims presenting to participating emergency departments underwent clinical evaluation prior to radiographic imaging. The elements of the decision rule were assessed and documented in each patient prior to radiographic imaging. The presence or absence of cervical spine injury was subsequently based on the final interpretation of all radiographic studies supplemented by a review of neurosurgical and risk management logs from each participating hospital. Data on all patients aged 80 years or greater were sequestered from the main database for separate analysis. Results: The study enrolled 34,069 individuals, including 818 patients (2.4 %) with cervical spine injuries. This population contained 1,070 patients (3.1 % of all cases) aged 80 or greater, 50 of whom (4.7 %) sustained cervical spine injuries. Injuries to the craniocervical junction (particularly C2 and the odontoid) accounted for 47.3 % of the injuries in the elderly, but only 28.6 % of injuries in younger patients. Older fracture victims were also likely to have more injuries (2.54 injuries/patient) than their younger counter parts (1.78 injuries/patient). The decision rule correctly identified all very elderly cervical spine injury victims [sensitivity 100.0 %; confidence interval (CI) 92.9–100.0 %], and designated 132 patients as “low-risk,” yielding a negative predictive value of 100.0 % (CI 97.3–100.0 %). Conclusions: The very elderly are at increased risked of cervical spine injury, particularly injury to the craniocervical junction. They also tend to have more extensive injuries than younger patients. Despite the increased risk of injury, the decision rule performed well in the very elderly, and allowed correct identification of all cervical spine injury victims.     

Cervical spine trauma radiography: comparison of general and musculoskeletal radiologists, with emphasis on number of views

We investigated the number of views necessary to evaluate trauma patients for suspected cervical spine fractures, comparing general and musculoskeletal radiologists. At separate sittings, independently and blindly, two musculoskeletal (MSKR) and two general (GR) radiologists evaluated sets of cervical spine images on a 1- to 5-point confidence scale for the presence of fracture in 68 trauma patients. First they evaluated anteroposterior and lateral views, then these plus an odontoid view, and lastly these three plus bilateral oblique radiographs. Overall, MSKR were slightly more accurate than GR (77.9 % vs. 74 %, P < 0.05). With two views, GR were more accurate (75.7 % vs.72.1 %); with three and five views, MSKR were more accurate (80.1 % vs.73.5 % and 81.6 % vs. 72.8 %). Confidence scores for excluding fractures increased with number of views (1.9, 1.6, 1.4, P < 0.0001); however, confidence scores for diagnosing fractures were affected neither by specialty (MSK = 3.8, GR = 3.9) nor by number of views (3.7, 3.9, 4.0). With more views, MSKR were more accurate and confident in excluding suspected cervical spine fractures than GR.     

高速磨钻辅助下椎弓根钉棒系统治疗颈椎交锁性脱位

目的 探讨应用高速磨钻辅助下颈椎椎弓根钉棒系统治疗下颈椎交锁性脱位的适应证、方法及疗效. 方法 回顾性分析2006年12月-2011年7月应用高速磨钻辅助椎弓根钉棒系统复位固定治疗的13例颈椎交锁性脱位患者临床资料.脱位部位:C3/43例,C4/55例,C55/64例,C6/71例.致伤原因:交通伤7例,高处坠落伤6例.2例无任何神经症状,7例合并中央管损伤综合征,4例截瘫.13例患者均在伤后7d内行高速磨钻辅助后路椎弓根螺钉复位内固定术,采用短节段固定,椎弓根钉置入上下相邻的椎弓根内,在复位撑开钳的配合下解除小关节交锁,并复位固定. 结果 所有患者均获良好复位,13例患者中8例解剖结构完全复位,5例有1～2 mm轻度滑脱.共置入52枚椎弓根螺钉,术中未出现脊髓、神经根或椎动脉损伤,术后X线片及CT显示除3枚螺钉偏移出椎弓根外,其余49枚螺钉完全位于椎弓根内.随访12-36个月,术后上肢感觉、运动功能明显改善.1例术后3个月断钉,但无神经症状. 结论 高速磨钻辅助椎弓根钉棒复位内固定适用于治疗颈椎交锁性脱位,复位过程符合生物力学,同时可行减压治疗.