Axonal regeneration of retinal ganglion cells: effect of trophic factors

A variety of neurotrophic factors can influence the cell functions of the developing, mature and injured retinal ganglion cells. The discovery that retinal ganglion cell loss can be alleviated by neurotrophic factors has generated a great deal of interest in the therapeutic potential of these molecules. Recently, evidence has provided valuable information on the receptors that mediate these events and the intracellular signaling cascades after the binding of these ligands. Signaling by neurotrophic factors does not seem to restrict to retrograde messenger from the target but also includes local interactions with neighbouring cells along the axonal pathways, anterograde signaling from the afferents and autocrine signaling. More insight into the mechanisms of action of neurotrophic factors and the signal transduction pathway leading to the protection and regeneration of retinal ganglion cells may allow the design of new therapeutic strategies.     

CNTF, not other trophic factors, promotes axonal regeneration of axotomized retinal ganglion cells in adult hamsters

PURPOSE: To investigate the in vivo effects of trophic factors on the axonal regeneration of axotomized retinal ganglion cells in adult hamsters. METHODS: The left optic nerve was transected intracranially or intraorbitally, and a peripheral nerve graft was apposed or sutured to the axotomized optic nerve to enhance regeneration. Trophic factors were applied intravitreally every 5 days. Animals were allowed to survive for 3 or 4 weeks. Regenerating retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) were labeled by applying the dye Fluoro-Gold to the distal end of the peripheral nerve graft 3 days before the animals were killed. RESULTS: Intravitreal application of ciliary neurotrophic factor substantially enhanced the regeneration of damaged axons into a sciatic nerve graft in both experimental conditions (intracranial and intraorbital optic nerve transections) but did not increase the survival of distally axotomized RGCs. Basic fibroblast growth factor and neurotrophins such as nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, neurotrophin-3, and neurotrophin-4/5 failed to enhance axonal regeneration of distally axotomized RGCs. CONCLUSIONS: Neurons of the adult central nervous system can regenerate in response to trophic supply after injury, and ciliary neurotrophic factor is at least one of the trophic factors that can promote axonal regeneration of axotomized RGCs.     

Survival and axonal regeneration of retinal ganglion cells in adult cats

Axotomized retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in adult cats offer a good experimental model to understand mechanisms of RGC deteriorations in ophthalmic diseases such as glaucoma and optic neuritis. Alpha ganglion cells in the cat retina have higher ability to survive axotomy and regenerate their axons than beta and non-alpha or beta (NAB) ganglion cells. By contrast, beta cells suffer from rapid cell death by apoptosis between 3 and 7 days after axotomy. We introduced several methods to rescue the axotomized cat RGCs from apoptosis and regenerate their axons; transplantation of the peripheral nerve (PN), intraocular injections of neurotrophic factors, or an antiapoptotic drug. Apoptosis of beta cells can be prevented with intravitreal injections of BDNF+CNTF+forskolin or a caspase inhibitor. The injection of BDNF+CNTF+forskolin also increases the numbers of regenerated beta and NAB cells, but only slightly enhances axonal regeneration of alpha cells. Electrical stimulation to the cut end of optic nerve is effective for the survival of axotomized RGCs in cats as well as in rats. To recover function of impaired vision in cats, further studies should be directed to achieve the following goals: (1) substantial number of regenerating RGCs, (2) reconstruction of the retino-geniculo-cortical pathway, and (3) reconstruction of retinotopy in the target visual centers.     

肌苷调节视网膜节细胞轴突再生

目的　探讨肌苷对中枢神经再生的影响。方法　分离并制作均匀的视网膜神经节细胞 (RGC)悬液 ,采用 2 4孔培养皿培养 ,观察嘌呤类物质对RGC轴突生长及细胞存活的影响。结果　 ( 1)肌苷促使RGC轴突生长 ;腺苷只有水解脱氨生成肌苷才能促使轴突生长。 ( 2 )肌苷与 6 硫鸟嘌呤 ( 6 TG)可能竞争性作用于蛋白激酶N(PKN)调节轴突生长。( 3 )肌苷刺激RGC致GAP 43表达增强。 ( 4 )肌苷的细胞内信息传递通路可能通过有丝分裂原激活蛋白激酶 (MAPK)、磷脂酰肌醇激酶 (PI3K)两条途径起作用。结论　肌苷在RGC神经再生中起积极的调节作用。     

Down-regulation of glutamate-induced conductances of retinal horizontal cells after ganglion cell axotomy

After a complete optic nerve section (ONS), retinal neurons may display retrograde transneuronal modifications in synaptic structure and function related to the retinal disconnection from the brain. The molecular and physiological basis of these changes is not yet fully understood. Immunoreactivity for calbindin was used to specifically immunolabel the horizontal cells (HC) in order to study any morphologic changes in the outer plexiform layer (OPL) after axotomy-induced degeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGC) in the rabbit retina. Glutamate-gated conductance expressed by HC enzymatically dissociated from the rabbit retina were studied at 12 and 21 days after ONS by using the whole-cell voltage-clamp technique. The amplitudes of glutamate-induced currents on HC were significantly reduced 3 weeks after axotomy. However, no morphologic changes within the OPL were detected coincident with the progressive loss of glutamatergic responses; similarly, HC dissociated from the axotomized retinal tissue did not differ in morphology or appearance from control retinas. The main finding in this study is that the HC experiment a retrograde transneuronal down-regulation of their ionotropic glutamate-induced conductance following axotomy-induced degeneration of RGC.     

A morphological classification of retinal ganglion cells in Chinese hamsters]

Retinal ganglion cells in Chinese hamsters were morphologically classified into alpha, beta and gamma cells by the horseradish peroxidase labeling method. The alpha cells had large somatic and dendritic fields. The beta cells were small to medium in somatic size and had small dendritic field size. The gamma cells had small to medium somatic and large dendritic fields. Each cell type had either symmetrical or asymmetrical dendrites arising from the soma. The dendrites of alpha, beta and gamma cells extended into either the internal or external stratum of the inner plexiform layer.     

Effects of epigallocatechin-3-gallate on rat retinal ganglion cells after optic nerve axotomy

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) in axotomized eyes and the pathways related to its action. Wistar rats received intracranial optic nerve (ON) axotomy 2 mm behind the globe in left eyes, whereas right eyes received sham operations. EGCG was administrated via intraperitoneal injection 30 min before and 4 days after axotomy. The density of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) was examined by a retrograde labeling technique. Western blot analysis was used to assess the expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), Bax, Bcl-2, ERK and Akt. Optic nerve axotomy caused 54% RGC loss 7 days following surgery, and EGCG treatment reduced RGC loss by 12% (P = 0.017). The expression of the nNOS and pro-apoptotic Bax proteins were increased 5 days after axotomy, while EGCG treatment significantly blunted the up-regulation of the above two proteins (P = 0.04 and 0.02, respectively). Axotomy-induced p-ERK 1/2 and p-Akt proteins expression 5 days and 3 days following injury, respectively. Treatment with EGCG further enhanced p-ERK 1/2 and p-Akt expressions after axotomy. Inhibition of ERK and Akt pathways attenuated the protection of EGCG on RGC against axotomy damage. Thus, we demonstrated that administration of EGCG prior to axotomy promotes RGC survival. The neuroprotective capacity of EGCG appears to act through mediating nitric oxide, anti-apoptotic, and cell survival signaling pathways.     

Long-term effect of retinal ganglion cell axotomy on the histomorphometry of other cells in the porcine retina

PURPOSE: To determine the effect of retinal ganglion cell axotomy on the thickness of inner plexiform, inner nuclear, and outer plexiform layers, as well as the densities of short- and middle-to-long-wavelength cones, in the porcine retina. METHODS: Unilateral retinal ganglion cell axotomy was performed in seven domestic pigs by either surgical optic nerve section or peripapillary argon laser photocoagulation. Damage to the retinal vasculature was ruled out with fluorescein angiography. Histologic examination of the retinal tissue was performed nine months later. Cone densities were determined immunohistochemically with the anti-visual pigment antibodies COS-1 and OS-2. Image analysis of semithin retinal cross sections was used to measure the thickness of the retinal layers. The effect of axotomy was quantified by optic nerve axon counts and estimations of retinal ganglion cell counts. The data were compared between the eyes with axotomy and the contralateral normal eye using the nonparametric Wilcoxon rank sum test. RESULTS: Treatment of the peripapillary retina with the argon laser resulted in a median decrease in axon counts and retinal ganglion cell density estimates of 31%. No optic nerve axons and cells resembling retinal ganglion cells were found in the eyes with transected optic nerves. There was no significant difference in either the thickness of any retinal layers or cone densities between axotomized and normal control eyes. CONCLUSION: No signs of retrograde transsynaptic degeneration were observed in porcine retinas nine months after retinal ganglion cell axotomy.     

嗅鞘细胞在视网膜神经节细胞再生方面的研究进展

嗅鞘细胞起源于嗅基板,是包裹嗅神经的神经胶质细胞,能终身保持再生.大量实验研究显示嗅鞘细胞移植能够促进中枢神经轴突再生,为此本文复习了大量关于嗅鞘细胞的细胞来源、生物学特性以及与其他胶质细胞区别的文献,并对其在中枢神经系统损伤以及视网膜神经节细胞再生方面的研究现状进行综述.     

Axonal regeneration of retinal ganglion cells after optic nerve pre-lesions and attachment of normal or pre-degenerated peripheral nerve grafts

Axonal regeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) into a normal or pre-degenerated peripheral nerve graft after an optic nerve pre-lesion was investigated. A pre-lesion performed 1-2 weeks before a second lesion has been shown to enhance axonal regeneration in peripheral nerves (PN) but not in optic nerves (ON) in mammals. The lack of such a beneficial pre-lesion effect may be due to the long delay (1-6 weeks) between the two lesions since RGCs and their axons degenerate rapidly 1-2 weeks following axotomy in adult rodents. The present study examined the effects of the proximal and distal ON pre-lesions with a shortened delay (0-8 days) on axonal regeneration of RGCs through a normal or pre-degenerated PN graft. The ON of adult hamsters was transected intraorbitally at 2 mm (proximal lesion) or intracranially at 7 mm (distal lesion) from the optic disc. The pre-lesioned ON was re-transected at 0.5 mm from the disc after 0, 1, 2, 4, or 8 days and a normal or a pre-degenerated PN graft was attached onto the ocular stump. The number of RGCs regenerating their injured axons into the PN graft was estimated by retrograde labeling with FluoroGold 4 weeks after grafting. The number of regenerating RGCs decreased significantly when the delay-time increased in animals with both the ON pre-lesions (proximal or distal) compared to control animals without an ON pre-lesion. The proximal ON pre-lesion significantly reduced the number of regenerating RGCs after a delay of 8 days in comparison with the distal lesion. However, this adverse effect can be overcome, to some degree, by a pre-degenerated PN graft applied 2, 4, or 8 days after the distal ON pre-lesion enhanced more RGCs to regenerate than the normal PN graft. Thus, in order to obtain the highest number of regenerating RGCs, a pre-degenerated PN should be grafted immediately after an ON lesion.     

Role of Schwann cells in retinal ganglion cell axon regeneration

It is a well known fact that the injured PNS can successfully regenerate, on the other hand, the CNS such as retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons of adult mammals is incapable of regeneration. After injury, RGC axons rapidly degenerate and most cell bodies go through the process of cell death, while glial cells at the site of injury undergo a series of responses which underlie the so-called glial scar formation. However, it has become apparent that RGCs do have an intrinsic capacity to regenerate which can be elicited by experimental replacement of the inhibitory glial environment with a permissive peripheral nerve milieu. Schwann cells are a major component of the PNS and play a role in regeneration, by producing various kinds of functional substances such as diffusible neurotrophic factors, extracellular matrix and cell adhesion molecules. RGC regeneration can be induced by cooperation of these substances. The contact of RGC axons to Schwann cells based upon the structural and molecular linkages seems to be indispensable for the stable and successful regeneration. In addition to cell adhesion molecules such as NCAM and L1, data from our laboratory show that Schwann cells utilize short focal tight junctions to provide morphological stabilization of the contact with the elongating axon, as well as a small scale of gap junctions to facilitate traffic of substances between them. Moreover, our results show that modifications of functional properties in neighboring glial cells of optic nerve are induced by transplantation of Schwann cells. Astrocytes usually considered to form a glial scar guide the regenerating axons in cooperation with Schwann cells. A decrease of the oligodendrocyte marker O4 and migration of ED-1 positive macrophages is observed within the optic nerve stump. Accordingly, RGC regeneration is not a simple phenomenon of axonal elongation on the Schwann cell membrane, but is based on direct and dynamic communication between the axon and the Schwann cell, and is also accompanied by changes and responses among the glial cell populations, which may be partly associated with the mechanisms of optic nerve regeneration.     

The number and soma size of retinal ganglion cells in Chinese hamsters

The number and somatic size of retinal ganglion cells in Chinese hamsters were examined by means of the horseradish peroxidase (HRP) staining method. The HRP staining is a method by which only the retinal ganglion cells can be stained. The number of ganglion cells per eye was 67,636-79,545 (mean: 73,575, n = 3). There was a tendency for the density of retinal ganglion cells to be larger in the central than in the peripheral retina. The diameter of retinal ganglion cells was 6-28 microns (mean: 13.0 microns, n = 500) and there was a tendency for the number of small cells to be larger in the central than in the peripheral retina.     

基质细胞衍生因子-1在视网膜培养中促进节细胞轴突再生的研究

【摘要】 目的 研究基质细胞衍生因子-1（SDF-1）在视网膜培养中促神经节细胞轴突再生的作用。设计 实验研究。研究对象 Fischer 344大鼠视网膜。方法 视网膜培养之前5天夹断大鼠视神经;培养前用多聚赖氨酸及层黏连蛋白包被培养板;培养时,把分离出来的视网膜放射状剪成8小片,每小片视网膜粘铺于已包被好的培养板孔中,每5~6块取自不同大鼠的视网膜块随机组成一组,共7组,分别置于7种不同的Neurobasal-A/B27培养基中（对照组、20 ng/ml、70 ng/ml、200 ng/ml、500ng/ml及1000 ng/ml 5个SDF-1浓度梯度处理组及SDF-1联合AMD3100阻断组）培养7天,在倒置显微镜下计数再生神经轴突的数量及长度,并对各组进行比较。主要指标 再生神经轴突的数量及长度。结果 对照组平均每个视网膜培养块的再生神经突数量及长度分别为17根及约1 mm;SDF-1促进轴突再生的作用随其浓度的增高而增强,中高浓度SDF-1组可使轴突再生增强2～3倍,而应用受体阻断剂AMD3100可使SDF-1的促再生作用减半。结论 SDF-1具有促进视网膜神经节细胞轴突再生的作用且具有浓度依赖性。（眼科,2012,21：256-260）     

依托咪酯对成年大鼠视神经切断后视网膜神经节细胞的保护作用

目的:观察依托咪酯(ET)对成年大鼠视神经切断后视网膜神经节细胞(RGC)存活的作用.方法:成年雌性SD大鼠42只,眶内距视神经根部1mm处切断左侧视神经,残端留置浸有荧光金(50g/L)的明胶海绵逆行标记RGC.术后大鼠随机分为ET(4mg/kg,ip,1次/d)治疗组、1,2-丙二醇(PG)溶剂对照组、生理盐水对照组和正常对照组.再根据术后不同存活时间将前3组动物分为7d和14d两个亚组,正常对照组动物则存活2d.于相应存活时间点处死动物,取出各组大鼠左侧视网膜平铺后计数存活RGC并得出RGC的平均密度.结果:术后7dET治疗组存活RGC平均密度为1 307±55/mm2,显著高于PG对照组(1 128±75/mm2)和生理盐水对照组(1 068±75/mm2,P＜0.001).然而,未能在术后14d观察到ET的这种保护作用,因为ET治疗组存活RGC平均密度(210±36/mm2)与PG对照组(215±20/mm2)和生理盐水对照(208±19/mm2)间无显著差异(P＞0.05).结论:ET在视神经切断后一定时期内对RGC具有神经保护作用.     

Neuroprotective effect of inosine on axotomized retinal ganglion cells in adult rats

PURPOSE: To explore the potential survival-promoting effect of inosine on axotomized retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) of adult rats in vivo. METHODS: The left optic nerves (ON) in the subject rats were transected at 1.5 mm from the optic disc. Repeated intraperitoneal injections or single intraocular injection of inosine were administered. The RGCs were retrogradely labeled with a gold fluorescent dye and the density of surviving RGCs in number per square millimeter of retina was calculated in wholemounted retinas. The functional integrity of the blood-retinal barrier (BRB) after ON transection was evaluated with an intravenous injection of Evans blue. RESULTS: In control animals, the mean density of surviving RGCs (number per square millimeter) of the whole retina was 2007 +/- 68 at 2 days (taken as the normal value), 927 +/- 156 at 7 days, and 384 +/- 33 at 14 days after surgery. Repeated intraperitoneal injections (75 mg/kg for each injection) of inosine significantly enhanced RGC survival at 14 days after ON transection (500 +/- 38), whereas no significant difference in the densities was detected at 7 days (974 +/- 101), even when the dosage of inosine was doubled (1039 +/- 61). At this time point, however, a single intraocular injection of inosine significantly increased the density of surviving RGCs (1184 +/- 156). Moreover, more RGCs around the optic disc were rescued when inosine, administered either intraperitoneally or intraocularly, showed a beneficial effect on RGC survival. No breakdown of the BRB after ON transection was detected with the method used in the study. CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate that inosine could protect axotomized RGCs in vivo after ON transection.     

Development and role of retinal glia in regeneration of ganglion cells following retinal injury.

AIMS/BACKGROUND: Recent observations have shown that the glial scar resulting from a surgical lesion of the immature retina differs from elsewhere in the central nervous system, in that it permits the through growth and reconnection of regenerating axons. This study in the opossum examines in detail the development and reaction to injury of retinal glia at different developmental stages, and specifically examines the distribution of the gliosis related inhibitory molecule, chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan (CSPG), making comparisons with a control site of gliosis in the cerebral cortex. METHODS: A linear slit was cut into the retina or cortex with a fine tungsten probe. After a variable time delay, immunocytochemistry of the resulting gliosis was employed to detect astrocytes with glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), Müller cells with vimentin, and CSPG with CS-56 antibodies. GFAP was also used at different ages to examine the normal development of astrocytes in the retina of this species. RESULTS: Astrocytes entered the retina 12 days after birth (P12), closely associated with blood vessels in the nerve fibre layer. In experiments at all ages studied, cellular continuity was re-established across the lesioned retina, which did not result in a significant astrocyte proliferation or CSPG expression. In contrast, cortical injury led to the development of a cystic cavity surrounded by astrocytes and CSPG. Müller cells expressed GFAP but not CSPG in the lesioned retina. CONCLUSION: Successful regrowth of ganglion cells through a retinal lesion may be partly the result of the scarcity of astrocytes in the retina, which results in minimal gliosis, or of their apparent inability to express inhibitory molecules.     

Selective excitotoxic degeneration of adult pig retinal ganglion cells in vitro

PURPOSE: Excitotoxicity is proposed to play a prominent role in retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death ensuing from diseases such as glaucoma and ischemia, but cell culture studies have used tissue from newborn rodents, yielding conflicting data that implicate either N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) or non-NMDA glutamate (Glu) receptor-mediated pathways. Excitotoxic RGC death was examined in vitro in this study, using adult pigs, a large-animal model for human retina. METHODS: Adult pig retina (and for comparative purposes young and adult rat retina) were dissociated and maintained in monolayer culture. Medium was supplemented with Glu or pharmacologic agonists or antagonists, and surviving RGCs and other retinal neurons were quantified using specific immunolabeling methods. Electrophysiological responses to externally applied Glu of RGCs in culture were recorded using whole-cell patch-clamp techniques. RESULTS: Application of Glu led to selective, dose-dependent losses in large RGCs (maximal 37% decrease at 1 mM; median effective dose [ED50], approximately 80 microM) and neurite damage in surviving RGCs. Application of Glu agonists and Glu receptor subclass antagonists showed that large RGC death was mediated through both NMDA and non-NMDA receptor pathways. Small RGCs, amacrine cells, and all other retinal neurons were resistant to Glu-induced death. By comparison, rat retinal cultures displayed heightened RGC vulnerability to Glu, mediated exclusively by non-NMDA receptor-mediated pathways. Amacrine cells were unaffected by NMDA but were very sensitive to kainate application (>90% loss). Other retinal neurons were unaffected by any treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The molecular pathways underlying excitotoxic RGC death in vitro (non-NMDA or NMDA-preferring Glu receptors) vary among species and developmental stages. The selective elimination of adult pig large RGCs by NMDA receptor-mediated pathways more closely resembles human and animal glaucoma in vivo than other published culture models, providing a simplified experimental system for investigating the pharmacologic and toxicologic bases of glaucoma-like neuronal death.     

肌苷毫微粒对成年大鼠视网膜节细胞的保护作用

目的 研究载有肌苷的毫微粒对视神经切断后视网膜节细胞(RGC)存活的影响。方法 制备肌苷毫微粒，体外测定理化性质。将等体积的肌苷毫微粒、空载毫微粒或生理盐水溶液分别注入成年大鼠左眼内，对照组未经任何治疗。1d后于眶内切断所有动物左侧视神经，术后7d取左视网膜，计数荧光金逆行标记的存活RGC。结果 肌苷毫微粒形态规整，具有缓释特点。同对照相比，肌苷毫微粒能显著提高存活RGC的密度，而空载体和生理盐水无此作用；空载毫微粒与生理盐水、对照之间以及空载毫微粒和肌苷毫微粒两组间RGC密度均无显著差异。结论 注入眼球的肌苷毫微粒至少在7d内能有效缓释肌苷，进而对轴突损伤RGC发挥显著的神经保护作用。