Assessment of some problematic factors in facial image identification using a 2D/3D superimposition technique

The number of criminal cases requiring facial image identification of a suspect has been increasing because a surveillance camera is installed everywhere in the city and furthermore, the intercom with the recording function is installed in the home. In this study, we aimed to analyze the usefulness of a 2D/3D facial image superimposition system for image identification when facial aging, facial expression, and twins are under consideration. As a result, the mean values of the average distances calculated from the 16 anatomical landmarks between the 3D facial images of the 50s groups and the 2D facial images of the 20s, 30s, and 40s groups were 2.6, 2.3, and 2.2 mm, respectively (facial aging). The mean values of the average distances calculated from 12 anatomical landmarks between the 3D normal facial images and four emotional expressions were 4.9 (laughter), 2.9 (anger), 2.9 (sadness), and 3.6 mm (surprised), respectively (facial expressions). The average distance obtained from 11 anatomical landmarks between the same person in twins was 1.1 mm, while the average distance between different person in twins was 2.0 mm (twins). Facial image identification using the 2D/3D facial image superimposition system demonstrated adequate statistical power and identified an individual with high accuracy, suggesting its usefulness. However, computer technology concerning video image processing and superimpose progress, there is a need to keep familiar with the morphology and anatomy as its base.     

Poor reliability of facial indices for comparative metric facial identification without parametrical superimposition

The relationship between the craniometric indices that can be evinced from the comparison of two faces for identification purposes is considered a reliable method for the personal identification of faces. Our study aims to assess whether facial indices are susceptible to substantial variations even if the two faces being compared are a different size, looking in a different direction, or differently angled. Our results showed high variability as regards both the facial indices thus obtained and the relative relations. This underlines the fact that regardless of the validity of the metric analysis method used, no numerical comparison can be reliable unless prior parametrical somato-physical superimposition of the images of the subjects has been performed to assess the complete comparability of the faces of the suspects. In conclusion, no reliable identification can be made with the simplified techniques that bypass this difficult, demanding and time-consuming phase of parametric superimposition, as we have shown that they can lead to gross errors.     

Superimposition technique for skull identification with Afloat® software

The craniofacial superimposition technique is still an important way of identifying skulls when there is no reference sample for a forensic DNA analysis, when DNA typing from remaining tissue samples has failed, or when antemortem dental records are not available. Through the widespread use of digital photography, the probability of portrait photographs of the missing person being available for comparison is reasonably high. We present a superimposition technique that is inexpensive, since it uses a free software tool compatible with the soft-and hardware components already being used in many facilities. Into the bargain, this technique yields high-quality results.     

Intoxicated person discrimination using infrared signature of facial blood vessels

In this work, facial thermal infrared images are employed for intoxicated person discrimination. The activity of the facial blood vessels of sober and intoxicated people comes into sight when nonlinear anisotropic diffusion and top-hat transformation are applied to enhance and isolate the vessels from the rest of the information on the face. For an intoxicated person, vessels around the nose and eyes as well as on the forehead become more active, whereas for a person who is sober the vessels’ activity is smoother all over the face’s thermal image. Accordingly, drunkenness can be ascertained by only using the thermal infrared image of the intoxicated person. The proposed method can be incorporated into a non-invasive inspection system used by the police as a first step for intoxicated person detection. The Student’s t-test is employed to assess the degree of confidence in separating the thermal images corresponding to sober and intoxicated people. The 40 participants in the experiment have contributed to the creation of the unique sober–drunk database available on the web.     

DNA typing of debris from fingernails

Summary In 3 series paired volunteers were asked to gently scratch each other with the fingernails to produce superficial abrasions only of the stratum corneum. In a 4th series scratch marks were produced in the skin of cadavers but additionally including the deeper epidermal layers. Debris was removed using a thorough technique in series 1 and 2 and a careful technique in series 3. After DNA extraction, the debris was typed using the STR systems HUMACTBP2 (SE33), HUMTH01 (TC11) and HUMVWFA31 (VWA). In the material obtained from series 1 (i.e. scratching with no prior cleaning of the nails) and series 2 (i.e. cleaning of the nails prior to the experiment) the debris was removed with a sharp instrument and only the DNA pattern of the person who carried out the scratching could be detected. In the 3rd series extraneous material was removed very carefully from under the fingernails to avoid contamination with DNA from the nails. In 71% of these cases DNA patterns of the person who had been scratched or mixed DNA patterns of both persons could be detected. In the experiments with postmortem skin the DNA pattern of the cadaver could be detected in all cases. These results show that in crime cases where the perpetrator has been scratched by the victim, sufficient material can be obtained from under the fingernails for DNA typing if removal of the particles is carried out with sufficient care.     

Pilot study to establish a nasal tip prediction method from unknown human skeletal remains for facial reconstruction and skull photo superimposition as applied to a Japanese male populations

Skull-photo superimposition is a technique used to identify the relationship between the skull and a photograph of a target person: and facial reconstruction reproduces antemortem facial features from an unknown human skull, or identifies the facial features of unknown human skeletal remains. These techniques are based on soft tissue thickness and the relationships between soft tissue and the skull, i.e., the position of the ear and external acoustic meatus, pupil and orbit, nose and nasal aperture, and lips and teeth. However, the ear and nose region are relatively difficult to identify because of their structure, as the soft tissues of these regions are lined with cartilage.We attempted to establish a more accurate method to determine the position of the nasal tip from the skull. We measured the height of the maxilla and mid-lower facial region in 55 Japanese men and generated a regression equation from the collected data. We obtained a result that was 2.0 ± 0.99 mm (mean ± SD) distant from the true nasal tip, when applied to a validation set consisting of another 12 Japanese men.     

Embryo dignity: the status and juridical protection of the in vitro embryo

In the context of research and reproduction, the status of the human in vitro embryo ranges from being regarded as a person to being regarded as mere property. As regards the first view, one extreme of the spectrum for offering possible legal protection considers that the embryo constitutes a legal person from the moment of conception. For opponents of this view life is a continuum that runs from conception until death. In this process one of the most important stages is birth, the reason being that birth represents the transition between a potential person and a person. The term "embryo" is used to express the being that exists after fusion of the egg and a spermatozoon during the process of embryogenesis until it reaches eight weeks, after which time it is termed a foetus. The embryo's life is recognized as a constitutional value which deserves juridical protection, but not as a person. It only becomes a person with birth.     

The orthopan tomoscintigram--a new application of emission computed tomography for facial bone scanning

The exact regional correlation of findings of facial bone scans, planar or SPECT, to dental orthopan X-ray films (OPT) is difficult because of the very different projection techniques. To improve correlative imaging in this regard a projection algorithm was developed that uses SPECT data of the skull for reconstructing an orthopan tomoscintigraphic projection. Fourteen conventional SPECT slices of the upper and lower jaws were obtained during bone scanning. All mandibular slices were superimposed resulting in a horseshoe shaped structure, while was marked by an ROI which was divided into segments. All 14 SPECT slices were then masked by this segmental ROI, thereby marking the teeth-carrying bone in all slices. The information from this horseshoe like ROI is then transformed into lines. Line by line arrangement results in an orthopan projection, the orthopan tomoscintigram. This new display allows 1:1 true scale superimposition with the X-ray OPT and markedly facilitates correlative imaging.     

The orthopan tomoscintigram — a new application of emission computed tomography for facial bone scanning

The exact regional correlation of findings of facial bone scans, planar or SPECT, to dental orthopan X-ray films (OPT) is difficult because of the very different projection techniques. To improve correlative imaging in this regard a projection algorithm was developed that uses SPECT data of the skull for reconstructing an orthopan tomoscintigraphic projection. Fourteen conventional SPECT slices of the upper and lower jaws were obtained during bone scanning. All mandibular slices were superimposed resulting in a horseshoe shaped structure, which was marked by an ROI which was divided into segments. All 14 SPECT slices were then masked by this segmental ROI, thereby marking the teeth-carrying bone in all slices. The information from this horseshoe like ROI is then transformed into lines. Line by line arrangement results in an orthopan projection, the orthopan tomoscintigram. This new display allows 1:1 true scale superimposition with the X-ray OPT and markedly facilitates correlative imaging.     

Injuries of the spine sustained during rugby

In 1984 JR Silver reported on 63 patients who had sustained serious injuries of their cervical spine as a result of games of rugby between the years 1952 and 1982. In this paper his results have been brought up to date. A further 19 players who were treated personally are reported, sustaining their injuries between 1983 and 1987. The mechanism of injury was still blows to the head or the head being driven into the ground. Seven injuries occurred in the scrums all were front row forwards. One was injured when the players charged, two players were inexperienced and the other cases all followed a collapse of the scrum after which the second rows continued to push. Five players were injured while tackling, six players were injured in a ruck and maul situation--in each case they were pushed to the ground while stooping to pick up the ball, other players piled on top of them (one player broke from the scrum and he endeavoured to retrieve a low ball and then fell striking his head). Further research was carried out by circularising all the spinal units in the United Kingdom to obtain the overall figures. It has been found that there has been a reduction in the number of injuries from ten in 1983 to five in 1986/7, presumably from a change in the laws. In order to determine whether a further change in the laws was necessary or whether the existing laws were adequate, research was carried out by video recording several games of rugby and analysing the games later in slow motion and determining how injuries occurred. Most of the injuries in these small number of games occurred in the ruck and maul situation. It was concluded that the majority of such injuries were not due to bad luck but were caused by irresponsible actions. The laws were still being broken and not being enforced. The existing laws were adequate since there has been a reduction in the number of injuries overall, particularly at first class and schoolboy levels, but were not enforced at junior levels-they were the main source of injury.     

Euthanasia and assisted suicide: comparison of legal aspects in Switzerland and other countries

The purpose of this paper is to present the legal aspects associated with assisted suicide in Switzerland and compare them with those in other countries. Like euthanasia, assisted suicide is a subject that induces much discussion in many countries. While the law is very liberal in some countries, such as Belgium and the Netherlands (where both euthanasia and assisted suicide take place), these practices are very controversial in other countries, such as France, where they remain taboo subjects. In the United States of America, the laws concerning assisted suicide can differ greatly from one state to another. For example, in Oregon, assisted suicide is allowed if applied by a medical doctor; in others, this act is illegal. In Canada, it is punishable according to the Criminal Code. In Switzerland euthanasia is punishable by law. However, the penal code does not condemn assisted suicide, whether carried out by a medical doctor or another person, provided it is not carried out through selfish motives. The application of these practices has become simplified in recent years and societies for the right to die with dignity based on this principle have come into being (Exit and Dignitas). In the French- and German-speaking parts of Switzerland the association Exit assists individuals living in Switzerland with serious progressive and incurable disease in their engagement to end their life. The association Dignitas, in the German-speaking part of Switzerland, also undertakes--in the same circumstances--to assist individuals coming from foreign countries. Dignitas welcomes several such individuals every year, especially from Germany, where a similar approach does not currently exist.     

Dual-energy digital radiographic quantification of calcium in simulated pulmonary nodules

The presence or absence of calcium in solitary pulmonary nodules may indicate whether a nodule is benign or malignant. Because current techniques for measuring the amount of calcium in these nodules are unsatisfactory, a study was carried out to assess the capability of dual-energy digital chest radiography to identify and quantify the calcium content of simulated pulmonary nodules of known calcium content. Measurements were carried out on 280 nodules of various sizes and calcium content that were placed within the lungs of a frozen human-chest phantom. A new calcium quantification technique that uses a parallelogram was developed to eliminate the problem of nodule superimposition over ribs. Nodules containing more than 35 mg of calcium per square centimeter (i.e., 7, 30, 60, and 110 mg of calcium for spherical nodules 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 cm in diameter) were measured with a high degree of accuracy and reasonable precision. Dual-energy digital radiography is a simple and accurate method of measuring the calcium content of solitary pulmonary nodules in humans.     

Usefulness of technetium-99m hydroxymethylene diphosphonate scans in localizing bone metastases of differentiated thyroid carcinoma

Iodine-131 is uniquely able to demonstrate iodine uptake of differentiated thyroid carcinoma (DTC), but precise localization may be difficult, especially in the thorax, due to the quality of image resolution with 1311 and the lack of anatomical landmarks. When bone metastases do not show radioiodine uptake, bone scintigraphy can be used to detect them. We studied two groups of patients. In group 1, 15 patients with known bone metastases of DTC were treated with 3.7 GBq ¹³¹I. After 4 or 5 days, technetium-99m hydroxymethylene diphosphonate (HMDP; 740 MBq) was injected and a whole-body scan with simultaneous acquisition of ¹³¹I and ^99mTc-HMDP images was carried out using a large field of view gamma camera fitted with a high-energy collimator. Technetium uptake was abnormal in 47 of 63 localizations, being increased in 29 foci, decreased in 7 and heterogeneous in 11. The superimposition of ¹³¹I and ^99mTc-HMDP scans permitted an accurate localization in 80% of spine metastases and in 46% of osseous thoracic localizations, even in the presence of lung metastases. In group 2, 9 patients, who had bone pain, neurological signs or elevated serum thyroglobulin, had DTC bone metastases without iodine uptake. They received a diagnostic dose of ^99mTc-HMDP 3h prior to scintigraphy with a large field of view gamma camera fitted with a low-energy collimator. Technetium uptake was abnormal in 37 of 38 localizations, being increased in 34 foci and decreased in 3. One false-negative was found in a skull metastasis. In both groups of patients, ^99mTc-HMDP scans were useful. The procedure allows accurate localization of bone metastases and can be used as a guide for subsequent radiological investigations.     

Zwei Beispiele zur Anwendbarkeit Y-chromosomaler DNA-Polymorphismen in der forensischen Spurenanalytik

Two cases where DNA typing has been carried out for stain analysis are described. In both cases Y chromosomal STR systems have been used in combination with autosomal STR systems. In the first case the DNA from the fingernails of a female victim with skin particles of the male murderer was typed. The male DNA in this mixture of male and female DNA could be typed. The excess of female DNA in the samples did not distrub the PCR reaction of Y-chromosomal systems. In the second case several body parts could be identified to belong to a single male person. The typing of the suspect’s DNA did not give any information because of a family relationship. Different kinds of stains have been analysed with DYS 389 I/II, DYS 390, DYS 391, DYS 392 DYS 393 and DYS19. Two multiplex PCR reactions were carried out to save time and stain material. Although the Y-chromosomal systems are not as polymorphic as autosomal STR systems the analysis of combined haplotypes can give additional information in forensic casework.     

Difficulties in personal identification caused by unreliable dental records

This paper demonstrates a case of personal identification that initially seemed straightforward, mainly because complete and comprehensive antemortem dental records of a missing person were made available for analysis. Skeletal remains were found and the skull (most crucial for human identification) was delivered for analysis. Comparative analysis of antemortem and postmortem dental records excluded identification, while the results of superimposition (simultaneously performed by another team member) revealed sufficient concordant points to establish identity. The results caused confusion and additional information was required. The need for more evidence resulted in delivery of elements of the postcranial skeleton. Identification was finally achieved when concordant points were established in a comparison of antemortem X-rays and the humerus. Team members concluded that the dental records were in fact not adequate and that mistakes in numbering the teeth (superior canine instead inferior canine and right and left premolars) were considered to be the initial reason a positive identification had not been made. The authors conclude that a multidisciplinary approach is crucial to making a positive identification and that caution should be exercised when carrying out personal identification from dental records alone. The need to adequately train police officers to collect and preserve dental evidence is also emphasized.     

Echocardiographic gating in non-cardiac digital angiography

This paper reports the results of the ECG-gating in non-cardiac digital subtraction angiography (DSA). One hundred and fifteen patients underwent DSA (126 examinations); ECG-gating was applied in 66/126 examinations: images recorded at 70% of R wave were subtracted. Artifacts produced by vascular movements were evaluated in all patients: only 40 examinations, carried out without ECG-gating, showed vascular artifacts. The major advantage of the ECG-gated DSA is the more efficient subtraction because of the better images superimposition: therefore, ECG-gating can be clinically helpful. On the contrary, it could be a problem in arrhythmic or bradycardic patients. ECG-gating is helpful in DSA imaging of the thoracic and abdominal aorta and of the cervical and renal arteries. In the examinations of peripheral vessels of the limbs it is not so efficient as in the trunk or in the neck.     

The role of MRI in facial swelling due to presumed salivary gland disease.

50 consecutive patients presenting with facial swelling thought clinically to be due to salivary gland disease underwent MRI. Examinations were interpreted by one radiologist without access to previous investigations. Records were reviewed to determine the reliability and role of MRI in patient management, and the contribution of other prior or subsequent investigations. MRI findings were verified against operative findings, percutaneous biopsy or clinical follow-up (periods ranging from 8-58 months). A mass was found in 27 patients; in 11 of these patients, disease was extrinsic to the salivary gland. MRI diagnosis of tumour was correct in all patients and MRI was a reliable investigation for planning surgical resection. No mass was found in 23 patients, 8 of whom had normal appearances. Evidence of salivary duct dilatation was seen in 12 patients and fatty infiltration was seen in 3. MRI findings appeared correct in all patients. Prior investigation was undertaken in 29 patients, including orthopantomography, ultrasound and sialography; none provided additional information. Sialography was carried out in three patients after MRI and concurred with MRI in all cases. MRI was an adequate basis for management in all patients and therefore appears to be an effective first line investigation of facial swelling. It is reasonable for patients to undergo preliminary investigation for dental sepsis, this being the most common cause of facial swelling. Further study is required to determine whether MRI can completely replace invasive sialography.     

Holographic topometry for a dense visualization of soft tissue for facial reconstruction

Facial reconstruction can be used as a forensic technique to identify a person, when no other identification method is applicable. The facial soft tissue thickness applied to the skull is crucial when performing an accurate facial reconstruction. Historically, scientists developed several techniques to measure the soft tissue of the face. It was their aim, to build a database of a unique point-set, differentiated by gender, age, ethnic origin, BMI. All used a limited number of landmarks and an inaccurate measuring technique. We developed a contact-free and precise measuring technique, using low-dose CT and holographic data. Due to the extremely short exposure time, the holographic measurement is very precise. We lay out our first experiences to create a facial soft tissue layer map of the face.     

The application of CamScan 2 in forensic dentistry

Forensic dentistry plays a major role in body identification. The dental examination is very accurate and also, nowadays, in the time of a comprehensive fingerprint and DNA assessment, objectively supported. The identification, which is based on the dental documentation, leads up to 43-89% of a successful process. The purpose of the study is to describe the techniques employed by forensic odontology to identify human remains and also to provide details of some of the novel developments within this area. Comparative methods of dental identification of the unknown subject with pre-mortem clinical records, X-ray images, implant presence, superimposition and DNA analysis confirm the identity of the individual. It was shown that dental identification of a person is based on unique individual characteristics of the dentition and dental restorations, relative resistance of the mineralised dental tissues and dental restorations to changes resulting from decomposition and harsh environmental extremes such as conditions of temperature and violent physical forces.     

Streamlining the decision-making process for international DNA kinship matching using Worldwide allele frequencies and tailored cutoff log10LR thresholds

The identification of human remains belonging to missing persons is one of the main challenges for forensic genetics. Although other means of identification can be applied to missing person investigations, DNA is often extremely valuable to further support or refute potential associations. When reference DNA samples cannot be collected from personal items belonging to a missing person, a direct DNA identification cannot be carried out. However, identifications can be made indirectly using DNA from the missing person’s relatives. The ranking of likelihood ratio (LR) values, which measure the fit of a missing person for any given pedigree, is often the first step in selecting candidates in a DNA database. Although implementing DNA kinship matching in a national environment is feasible, many challenges need to be resolved before applying this method to an international configuration. In this study, we present an innovative and intuitive method to perform international DNA kinship matching and facilitate the comparison of DNA profiles when the ancestry is unknown or unsure and/or when different marker sets are used. This straightforward method, which is based on calculations performed with the DNA matching software BONAPARTE, Worldwide allele frequencies and tailored cutoff log₁₀LR thresholds, allows for the classification of potential candidates according to the strength of the DNA evidence and the predicted proportion of adventitious matches. This is a powerful method for streamlining the decision-making process in missing person investigations and DVI processes, especially when there are low numbers of overlapping typed STRs. Intuitive interpretation tables and a decision tree will help strengthen international data comparison for the identification of reported missing individuals discovered outside their national borders.