Chronic cardiovascular disease mortality in mountaintop mining areas of central Appalachian states

Purpose: To determine if chronic cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality rates are higher among residents of mountaintop mining (MTM) areas compared to mining and nonmining areas, and to examine the association between greater levels of MTM surface mining and CVD mortality. Methods: Age‐adjusted chronic CVD mortality rates from 1999 to 2006 for counties in 4 Appalachian states where MTM occurs (N = 404) were linked with county coal mining data. Three groups of counties were compared: MTM, coal mining but not MTM, and nonmining. Covariates included smoking rate, rural‐urban status, percent male population, primary care physician supply, obesity rate, diabetes rate, poverty rate, race/ethnicity rates, high school and college education rates, and Appalachian county. Linear regression analyses examined the association of mortality rates with mining in MTM areas and non‐MTM areas and the association of mortality with quantity of surface coal mined in MTM areas. Findings: Prior to covariate adjustment, chronic CVD mortality rates were significantly higher in both mining areas compared to nonmining areas and significantly highest in MTM areas. After adjustment, mortality rates in MTM areas remained significantly higher and increased as a function of greater levels of surface mining. Higher obesity and poverty rates and lower college education rates also significantly predicted CVD mortality overall and in rural counties. Conclusions: MTM activity is significantly associated with elevated chronic CVD mortality rates. Future research is necessary to examine the socioeconomic and environmental impacts of MTM on health to reduce health disparities in rural coal mining areas.     

中国婴儿死亡率和期望寿命的地区差异性研究

目的:以我国(大陆地区)各省市的婴儿死亡率和期望寿命为分析指标,以收敛性模型为分析工具,分析地区差异性的收敛特征。方法 :采用σ收敛(研究对象的标准差随时间逐步变小)和β收敛(发展初始水平较低的经济体比初始水平较高的经济体有更高的增长率)模型进行分析。结果 :婴儿死亡率显示了σ收敛趋势,而期望寿命的σ收敛变化则显示了不同时间分段内收敛趋势情况不同的现象,两个指标皆呈现β收敛,表明了我国婴儿死亡率和期望寿命地区差异性逐步缩小。结论 :建议长期观测各项卫生服务指标在全国各地的开展情况,考察变化趋势,促进人群健康的地区公平性。     

A modified measure of health care disparities applied to birth weight disparities and subsequent mortality

We describe how a modified Gini index serves as an improved method of estimating health care disparities. The method, although general, is applied to an example of birth weight disparities and to their effect on subsequent mortality. The method provides the between-group results obtainable from current methods (i.e. how Hispanics generally fare relative to non-Hispanic Whites) but adds measures of within-group disparities (i.e. which specific Hispanics experience the greatest disparate treatment). Our application to birth weights and receipt of prenatal care, which may provide an upper bound because of omitted variables, shows that the time-of-birth disparities are associated with increased infant mortality within the first year of life.     

Ethnic differences in rates of infant mortality and sudden infant death in Sweden, 1978-1990

This study examined ethnic differences in infant mortality rates(IMRs) and rates of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) amongSwedish and immigrant women between 1978 and 1990 in Sweden.The study population comprised 1,265,942 single live birthsto women between the ages of 15 and 44 years in Sweden. Datafrom 3 registers In Sweden were linked to obtain medical andsociodemographic information for each mother and child in thestudy. Logistic regression analyses were employed to assessethnic differences in infant mortality and SIDS while controllingfor relevant confounders. This study revealed no ethnic differencesin IMRs. There were also no ethnic differences in the mortalityrates due to SIDS, except for immigrant women from SoutheastAsia and the Pacific Islands who experienced significantly higherrates of SIDS than Swedish women. This study shows that, ingeneral, the IMRs and mortality rates due to SIDS are not aserious public health problem among immigrant women in Swedenand suggests several reasons why this is the case.     

Trends in childhood renal cancer mortality in Brazil, 1980-2000

Mortality from childhood cancers has shown substantial declines in developed countries since 1960, with smaller favourable trends in South America. This study describes mortality trends in renal childhood cancer mortality in São Paulo state, Brazil, from 1980 to 2000. The age‐standardised mortality rates among the boys decreased from 0.36 per 100 000 inhabitants in 1984 to 0.09 in 1992, whereas the observed corresponding decline among girls was from 0.43 per 100 000 inhabitants in 1981 to 0.07 in 1990. Statistically significant declining trends in mortality rates were observed for boys (adjusted r² = 0.51, P < 0.001) and also for girls (adjusted r² = 0.40, P = 0.002), achieving in this group a significant reduction in age‐standardised mortality rates in the period (annual percentage change = ?4.21). Consistent decrease in mortality rates from childhood renal cancer was noted at São Paulo state. In the absence of changes in incidence rates, this decline could be attributed to the improvement in treatment protocols and supportive measures.     

Air pollution and postneonatal infant mortality in the United States, 1999-2002

OBJECTIVE: Our goal was to evaluate the relationship between cause-specific postneonatal infant mortality and chronic early-life exposure to particulate matter and gaseous air pollutants across the United States. METHODS: We linked county-specific monitoring data for particles with aerodiameter of < or = 2.5 microm (PM2.5) and < or = 10 microm (PM10), ozone, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide to birth and death records for infants born from 1999 to 2002 in U.S. counties with > 250,000 residents. For each infant, we calculated the average concentration of each pollutant over the first 2 months of life. We used logistic generalized estimating equations to estimate odds ratios of postneonatal mortality for all causes, respiratory causes, sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), and all other causes for each pollutant, controlling for individual maternal factors (race, marital status, education, age, and primiparity), percentage of county population below poverty, region, birth month, birth year, and other pollutants. This analysis includes about 3.5 million births, with 6,639 postneonatal infant deaths. RESULTS: After adjustment for demographic and other factors and for other pollutants, we found adjusted odds ratios of 1.16 [95% confidence interval (CI), 1.06-1.27] for a 10-mug/m3 increase in PM10 for respiratory causes and 1.20 (95% CI, 1.09-1.32) for a 10-ppb increase in ozone and deaths from SIDS. We did not find relationships with other pollutants and for other causes of death (control category). CONCLUSIONS: This study supports particulate matter air pollution being a risk factor for respiratory-related postneonatal mortality and suggests that ozone may be associated with SIDS in the United States.     

Low birthweight and mortality: the tendency to repeat low birthweight and its association with early neonatal and infant morbidity and mortality

Previous studies have demonstrated the tendency to repeat gestational age and birthweight in successive pregnancies and that this tendency is associated with infant survival. Thus, newborn outcome and survival is less favourable if the gestational age and size departs from this maternal tendency. This paper aims to study diseases or conditions that might be associated with this effect. Data were provided through a linkage between three Danish health registries: the Danish Fertility Database, the National Hospital Registry, and the Registry for Preventive Medicine. Such linkage was possible due to the use of unique ID-person numbers. The study included all 8219 second-order low-birthweight (LBW) singleton Danish births, 1980-94, of whom 7811 were liveborn. It was also required that the mother's first delivery took place during that period. The analysis considered 7803 of these births; eight were excluded due to insufficient information. Of the second-order LBW children, 26% had an elder sibling who was also LBW. Early neonatal mortality of a 'non-repeat' LBW birth was 1.3 times higher than 'repeat' LBW births [53.8 vs. 41.2 per 1000; RR 1.31; 95% CI 1.03, 1.65], as was infant mortality [78.4 vs. 60.8 per 1000; RR 1.30; 95% CI 1.06, 1.56]. Also, proportionately more LBW repeat births had Apgar scores of >or=7 after 1 and 5 min. Overall, repeat second-order LBW babies weighed 68 g more than non-repeat LBW babies (P < 0.001). At term, the weight difference was 160 g higher among repeat LBW births (P < 0.001). The mean number of hospitalisations during the first year of life was lower among repeat than non-repeat LBW babies (2.30 vs. 2.46, P < 0.001), while the mean duration of stay was 23.71 vs. 23.97 days (P > 0.05). Newborn immaturity was the most common diagnosis for hospitalisation, and infections the second most common. There were no differences between repeat and non-repeat LBW births in the proportion with each diagnosis. Apart from the differences in birthweight, we were unable to explain the improved survival for repeat compared with non-repeat LBW babies. Except for differences in Apgar scores, we observed no differences in morbidity based on registered hospitalisations during infancy.     

Investigating variations in infant mortality in England and Wales by mother's country of birth, 1983-2001

The aim of this study was to investigate variations in infant mortality from 1983 to 2001 by birthweight, registration status, father's social class, age of mother at birth and cause of death, among babies of mothers born in countries that represent the largest ethnic minority groups in England and Wales. A total of 70,208 infant death registration records linked to their corresponding birth registration records were used. The study focused on infant deaths of babies of mothers born in the UK, Republic of Ireland, Caribbean, West Africa, East Africa, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. From 1983 to 2001 infant mortality rates decreased overall, and this was also apparent in the rates by mother's country of birth. Overall, babies of mothers born in Pakistan consistently had the highest infant mortality rates. Low-birthweight babies of mothers born in West Africa had the highest infant, neonatal and postneonatal death rates. Differences were also seen by registration status, mother's age and between manual and non-manual occupations for all countries from 1983 to 2001. For babies of mothers born in the UK, Caribbean and West Africa, immaturity-related conditions were the most common cause of infant deaths. The leading cause of infant death among babies of mothers born in Pakistan and Bangladesh was congenital anomalies.     

Socioeconomic inequalities in perinatal and infant mortality from 1854 to 1990 in Amsterdam, the Netherlands

Trends in socioeconomic differences in infant and perinatalmortality in Amsterdam were studied for the period 1854–1990,using published and unpublished material, at the aggregate andat the individual level. Absolute and relative socioeconomicmortality differences (SEMD) per data-set were calculated usinginequality indices developed by Pamuk. The results show a decreaseof the absolute differences in both infant and perinatal mortality.For infant mortality, this is mainly due to the overall declineof the infant mortality rate. Relative differences in infantmortality did not decrease during the study period. This isthe result of separate developments in 3 time periods. Fromapproximately 1850 to approximately 1910 an increase in relativedifferences can be seen, a trend which is reversed from approximately1910 to the end of World War II. After World War II relativedifferences seem to stabilize at the same level. For perinatalmortality, for which only data from the post-World War II periodare available, the decrease in the absolute differences is dueboth to the overall decline of the perinatal mortality rateand to a decline of relative differences between socioeconomicgroups. It is conduded that although SEMD in infant and perinatalmortality have declined in an absolute sense, they still existand that the relative position of deprived groups concerninginfant mortality was not ameliorated during the study period.     

Adjusted mortality rates: a tool for creating more meaningful league tables for stillbirth and infant mortality rates

A number of problems associated with league tables of performance indicators have been discussed in the literature. This paper attempts to address these problems for stillbirth and infant mortality rates in order to produce meaningful and useful information for the government, general public and health professionals. Composite stillbirth and infant mortality rates, low birth-weight and very low birth-weight rates were determined for the 100 English Health Authorities for 1996-1997. Townsend deprivation scores for these districts were also obtained. The mortality rates were adjusted by multiple regression for very low birth-weight and Townsend score separately and together. Confidence intervals were calculated for the dual-adjusted rates. Almost 60% of the variability in mortality rates were explained by Townsend score and very low birth-weight rates together. Adjusted league tables showed how the individual and combined predictors affect the individual mortality rates for each Health Authority. There was considerable overlap in the confidence intervals for the adjusted rates although there were a few Health Authorities whose mortality rates were clearly below most others. We conclude that fairer and more useful information is provided by geographically based league tables which give both crude rates and rates adjusted for single and multiple predictor variables. The inclusion of confidence intervals aids interpretation of annual random variations and knowledge of differences in the effects of the individual predictors enables better resource targeting.     

Stillbirth and infant mortality in singletons by cause of death,birthweight, gestational age and birthweight‐for‐gestation,Newcastle upon Tyne 1961–2000

Glinianaia SV, Rankin J, Pearce MS, Parker L, Pless‐Mulloli T. Stillbirth and infant mortality in singletons by cause of death, birthweight, gestational age and birthweight‐for‐gestation, Newcastle upon Tyne 1961–2000. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 2010. The dramatic reduction observed in stillbirth and infant mortality over the last few decades has not been assessed by both birthweight and gestation. We have explored temporal changes in stillbirth and infant mortality in Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, by cause of death, birthweight, gestational age, birthweight standardised for gestation and infant sex during 1961–2000. We included 131 044 singleton births to mothers resident in Newcastle, including 1342 stillbirths and 1620 infant deaths. Cause‐, birthweight‐, gestational age‐ and birthweight‐for‐gestation‐specific stillbirth (per 1000 total births) and infant mortality (per 1000 livebirths) rates were compared between 1961–80 and 1981–2000 and between individual consecutive decades. Between 1961 and 2000, total stillbirth and infant mortality rates declined dramatically from 23.4 to 4.7 per 1000 total births and from 25.7 to 5.9 per 1000 livebirths, respectively. Rates fell continuously during the first two study decades; however, from 1981–90 to 1991–2000 the decline was not statistically significant. Between 1961–80 and 1981–2000, both stillbirth and infant mortality significantly declined in all birthweight and gestational age categories and for most leading causes of death. Although the population mean birthweight during 1981–2000 [3304 g (SD ± 569)] was significantly higher than during 1961–80 [3255 g (SD ± 572)] (P < 0.0001), the lowest stillbirth and infant mortality rates in 1981–2000 were consistently at about 1 SD above the mean birthweight, with mortality rates increasing for babies with lower or higher weight‐for‐gestation. Declines in stillbirth and infant mortality in Newcastle were associated with reductions in birthweight‐ and gestational age‐specific mortality rates and occurred in most cause‐specific groups of death.     

"Development" is not essential to reduce infant mortality rate in India: experience from the Ballabgarh project

BACKGROUND: India aims to reduce the infant mortality rate (IMR) to below 60 per 1000 live births by 2000. IMR is higher in northern India as compared with south Indian states like Kerala. Any further reduction in IMR needs identification of new strategies. The Ballabgarh project with an IMR of 36 in 1997 can help identify such strategies. OBJECTIVE: To see the trend in reduction of neonatal mortality rate (NNMR) and IMR at the Ballabgarh project, compare it with Kerala and rural India's trend and look at the causes of neonatal and infant mortality. DESIGN: The Comprehensive Rural Health Services Project, Ballabgarh, run by the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, covered an estimated population of 70,079 in 1997. The health care delivery system is on the national pattern. All the deaths are identified during the house visits by the male workers. The cause of death is ascertained by the health assistant based on the symptomatology at the time of death. RESULTS: The trends in reduction of IMR for Ballabgarh, Kerala and rural India are roughly parallel with the IMR of Ballabgarh lying somewhere in between the two. However, the NNMR of Ballabgarh (10.6 in 1996) was comparable to Kerala's NNMR (10.9 in 1992). The proportion of infant deaths occurring during the neonatal period had fallen from 50% in the early seventies to 30% during 1996-97. In 1992-1994, 33.8% of all neonatal deaths were attributable to low birth weight and 37.3% to infective causes. Acute respiratory infection and diarrhoea continue to be the chief cause of postneonatal mortality. CONCLUSION: It is possible to bring down neonatal mortality before postneonatal mortality. The Kerala model, which focuses on social development, may not apply to northern India for sociocultural reasons.     

中国2000--2005年孕产妇死亡趋势分析

目的 了解2000-2005年中国孕产妇死亡发生的主要特征、死亡率变化趋势、主要死亡原因及其变化.方法 在全国31个省、自治区、直辖市孕产妇死亡监测网内采用以人群为基础的流行病学调查方法.结果 2000-2005年中国农村孕产妇死亡率高于城市,边远地区高于内地、沿海;全国孕产妇死亡率由53.0/10万下降到47.6/10万,农村由67.2/10万下降到59.2/10万,城市由28.8/10万下降到27.6/10万,下降幅度分别为10.2%、11.9%和4.2%.2000年全国孕产妇死亡前3位死因为产科出血、妊娠期高血压和羊水栓塞,2005年前3位是产科出血、心脏病和妊娠期高血压,但产科出血始终是第一死因,导致产科出血的主要原因是胎盘滞留、宫缩乏力和子宫破裂.结论 2000-2005年全国孕产妇死亡率无趋势变化,主要死因是产科出血.降低农村及边远地区孕产妇死亡率和提高诊治产科出血基本技能是实现<中国妇女发展纲要(2000-2010年)>降低孕产妇死亡率目标的关键.