A typology for provider payment systems in health care

A typology to classify provider payment systems from an incentive point of view is developed. We analyse the way, how these systems can influence provider behaviour and, a fortiori, contribute to attain the general objectives of health care, i.e. quality of care, efficiency and accessibility. The first dimension of the typology indicates whether there is a link between the provider's income and his activity. In variable systems, the provider has an ability to influence his earnings, contrary to fixed systems. The second dimension indicates whether the provider's payments are related to his actual costs or not. In retrospective systems, the provider's own costs are the basis for reimbursement ex post whereas in prospective systems payments are determined ex ante without any link to the real costs of the individual provider. These different characteristics are likely to influence provider behaviour in different ways. Furthermore the most frequently used criteria to determine the provider's income are discussed: per service, per diem, per case, per patient and per period. Also a distinction is made between incentives at the level of the individual provider (micro-level) and the sponsor (macro-level). Finally, the potential interactions when several payment systems are used simultaneously are discussed. This typology is useful to classify and compare different types of payment systems as prevailing in different countries, and provides a useful framework for future research of health care payment systems.     

Effects of performance-based reimbursement on the professional autonomy and power of physicians and the quality of care.

The key question addressed in this study is whether performance-based reimbursement in health care affects the professional power and autonomy of physicians, and if so, whether this has any consequences for the quality of care. This cohort study examines the period 1994-98 in 11 Swedish county councils. Four hundred and eighteen physicians were studied in Stockholm County Council, which has a performance-based reimbursement system, and in ten councils without such a system. The results show that professional power and autonomy are considered to be very limited in all councils, and that they have decreased during the period studied. Professional autonomy is, however, more limited in Stockholm. The limitations in Stockholm are more related to financial considerations, whereas the limitations in the other councils are more due to guidelines and lists of recommended drugs. Professional autonomy and power were found to be important determinants for quality of care, and the physicians in Stockholm estimated the quality of care lower than their colleagues in the ten other councils. Thus, our study suggests that the performance-based reimbursement system might fail to reach the desired results due to its negative impact on professional power and autonomy.     

Changes in health related quality of life among patients treated for eating disorders

Objective: To prospectively investigate changes in the perception of health-related quality of life (HRQoL) among eating disorder patients after 2 years of treatment and follow-up and clinical predictors of change. Method: One hundred and thirty-one consecutive subjects were recruited from an eating disorder outpatient clinic. Subjects completed a generic HRQoL questionnaire, the Short Form-36 (SF-36), as well as the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-40) to measure symptom severity and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression scale (HAD), at the first visit and after 24 months. Results: Perception of HRQoL, measured by the SF-36, showed significant improvement in all but the role emotional domain after 2 years. The greatest improvements were observed in the physical function and social function domains, followed by mental health and vitality. Despite significant improvement in the summary mental health scale, scores after 2 years of treatment and follow-up were still below normative population values of women aged 18–34. Severity of eating disorder symptoms and presence of anxiety or depression at baseline significantly affected improvement in various SF-36 domains. Conclusions: Despite improvements in perception of HRQoL, eating disorder patients were more dysfunctional in all domains of the SF-36 even after 2 years of treatment and follow-up compared with women in the general population, and the severity of eating disorder symptoms was correlated with degree of dysfunction.     

浅谈省级新生儿ICU医疗质量控制中心的作用

描述了省级新生儿ICU医疗质量控制中心在新生儿医疗体系中的作用,其中包括提供各项质量保证措施及技术指导、完善全省新生儿医疗质量管理体系、制定全省新生儿ICU建设规范和技术规范、建立全省新生儿医疗不良事件报告机制、建立健全全省新生儿转运网路、做好早产儿视网膜病的防治工作以及开展前瞻性的大规模的多中心研究等,指出新生儿ICU医疗质量控制中心有助于提高全省新生儿专科的医疗质量,有助于构建和谐的医患关系.     

Reimbursement systems and quality of hospital care: An empirical analysis for Italy

There is an ongoing debate about the effect of different reimbursement systems on hospital performance and quality of care. The present paper aims at contributing to this literature by analysing the impact of different hospital payment schemes on patients’ outcomes in Italy.     

Understanding team-based quality improvement for depression in primary care

OBJECTIVE: To assess the impacts of the characteristics of quality improvement (QI) teams and their environments on team success in designing and implementing high quality, enduring depression care improvement programs in primary care (PC) practices. STUDY SETTING/DATA SOURCES: Two nonprofit managed care organizations sponsored five QI teams tasked with improving care for depression in large PC practices. Data on characteristics of the teams and their environments is from observer process notes, national expert ratings, administrative data, and interviews. STUDY DESIGN: Comparative formative evaluation of the quality and duration of implementation of the depression improvement programs developed by Central Teams (CTs) emphasizing expert design and Local Teams (LTs) emphasizing participatory local clinician design, and of the effects of additional team and environmental factors on each type of team. Both types of teams depended upon local clinicians for implementation. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The CT intervention program designs were more evidence-based than those of LTs. Expert team leadership, support from local practice management, and support from local mental health specialists strongly influenced the development of successful team programs. The CTs and LTs were equally successful when these conditions could be met, but CTs were more successful than LTs in less supportive environments. CONCLUSIONS: The LT approach to QI for depression requires high local support and expertise from primary care and mental health clinicians. The CT approach is more likely to succeed than the LT approach when local practice conditions are not optimal.     

湖南某县新农合参合农民住院费用及补偿情况

通过纵向比较和分析2006—2010年湖南省某县农民参合情况住院费用、实际补偿情况,了解该县新型农村合作医疗实施后,农民疾病负担情况的变化,为新型农村合作医疗制度的完善、医疗费用的控制、农民疾病负担的减轻提供可参考的意见。     

Medicare payment changes and nursing home quality: effects on long-stay residents

The Balanced Budget Act of 1997 dramatically changed the way that Medicare pays skilled nursing facilities, providing a natural experiment in nursing home behavior. Medicare payment policy (directed at short-stay residents) may have affected outcomes for long-stay, chronic-care residents if services for these residents were subsidized through cost-shifting prior to implementation of Medicare prospective payment for nursing homes. We link changes in both the form and level of Medicare payment at the facility level with changes in resident-level quality, as represented by pressure sores and urinary tract infections in Minimum Data Set (MDS) assessments. Results show that long-stay residents experienced increased adverse outcomes with the elimination of Medicare cost reimbursement.     

优质护理对老年高血压患者生活质量的影响

目的：探讨优质护理对老年高血压患者生活质量的影响。方法：选取88例老年高血压患者作为研究对象,将其随机分成对照组和护理干预组,每组44例,并对所有患者实施医疗护理,给予对照组按照常规方法进行治疗及护理,护理干预组则在常规护理的基础上实施优质护理干预;对两组患者的生活质量改善情况加以观察。结果：护理干预组的护理有效率为90.91%,对照组护理有效率为79.55%,两组数据差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）;护理干预组患者的生活质量良好率为86.36%,对照组则为70.45%,差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。结论：对老年高血压患者实施优质护理,可有效的提高患者的治疗依从性,使临床症状得到改善,有力的促进了患者生活质量的提高。     

姑息关怀服务模式对癌症晚期患者生命质量的影响研究

目的 评估姑息关怀服务对癌症晚期患者生命质量的影响并提出管理建议。方法 采用问卷调查的方式对H医院接受姑息关怀治疗和常规抗癌治疗的248名癌症晚期住院患者的生命质量进行调查。选取中国癌症患者生命质量量表对癌症晚期患者的生命质量进行评估,然后通过统计分析探讨不同治疗方式下患者生命质量的差异。结果 癌症晚期患者生命质量普遍较差(36.38±4.82),其中躯体症状得分最低,依次是精神心理和社会关系。接受姑息关怀后患者生命质量及各指标得分均有显著提高。治疗前生命质量更差、疼痛程度更高的姑息关怀组患者,其治疗后的生命质量评分与常规抗癌组患者相比无显著差异,疼痛程度更是低于常规抗癌组。两组治疗方式下患者生命质量治疗前后的差值对比(6.82±2.71 vs 2.53±2.95),姑息关怀组的改善效果更明显(t=11.908,P<0.05)。结论 姑息关怀治疗相对于常规抗癌治疗,对癌症晚期患者生命质量的改善效果更为显著,应加强对以价值为核心的姑息关怀服务模式的宣传和推广。     

PDCA管理在药物不良反应监测中的应用

目的 医疗质量管理的核心是保证患者安全,用药安全则是实现这一目标的关键因素.综合医院做好药物不良反应监测,调动医务人员主动上报药物不良事件并持续改进,是医院安全文化面临的挑战.方法　通过采用PDCA循环医疗质量的管理方法,制定药物不良反应上报标准,分析我院2005年～2009年药物不良反应监测情况,提出持续改进的措施.结果　5年来,我院上报各种药物不良反应2 850例次,平均每年570例次,住院患者药物不良反应发生率为3.28%.其中严重药物不良反应43例次,发生率为0.49‰,占药品不良反应的比例为1.51%.我院在药物不良反应监测数量和质量上逐年提高,初步形成了用药安全文化.结论 PDCA循环管理可以有效地改进医院药物不良反应监测工作,提高医务人员主动上报的自觉性.针对药物不良反应发生各个环节的持续循环管理,可以最大程度地降低风险、保证患者医疗安全.药物不良反应漏报及其改进措施将是今后医院做好此项工作的重点.

Abstract：

Objective Patient safety is key to quality of care in hospital management, for which drug safety is critical. General hospitals are challenged with how to monitor drug adverse reaction (ADR), and motivate their staff to report ADRs in building a hospital safety culture. Methods The PDCA cycle quality improvement process was called into play, to set the ADR criteria and analyze data of inpatients' ADRs from 2005 to 2009, which was followed by measures proposed for ADR continuous improvement. Results A total of 2850 ADR cases were reported in the past 5 years, averaging 570 cases per year. The ADR incidence rate was 3. 28%, of which 43 were severe ADR cases, or 0. 49% of the total cases, accounting for 1. 51% of all the ADR cases. Year to year, the quantity and quality of ADR reporting have been improving in the hospital, witnessing an initial culture of drug safety. In 2008, the hospital was awarded as an advanced ADR center in Beijing. Conclusion The PDCA cycle is an effective means for ADR management, as it can improve the awareness of the medical staff for proactive ADR reporting. Sustained circular management against ADRs can minimize risks and maximize patient safety.Under-reporting and the corrective measures shall be watched over by the hospital in the future.     

Impact of Medicaid reimbursement on mental health quality indicators

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between the use of the Minimum Data Set (MDS) for determining Medicaid reimbursement to nursing facilities and the MDS Quality Indicators examining nursing facility residents' mental health. DATA SOURCES: The 2004 National MDS facility Quality Indicator reports served as the dependent variables. Explanatory variables were based on the 2004 Online Survey Certification and Reporting system (OSCAR) and an examination of existing reports, a review of the State Medicaid Plans, and State Medicaid personnel. STUDY DESIGN: Multilevel regression models were used to account for the hierarchical structure of the data. DATA COLLECTION: MDS and OSCAR data were linked by facility identifiers and subsequently linked with state-level variables. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The use of the MDS for determining Medicaid reimbursement was associated with higher (poorer) quality indicator values for all four mental health quality indicators examined. This effect was not found in four comparison quality indicators. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that documentation of mental health symptoms may be influenced by economic incentives. Policy makers should be cautioned from using these measures as the basis for decision making, such as with pay-for-performance initiatives.     

Appropriate time frames for data collection in quality of life research among cancer patients at the end of life

Longitudinal research has been recommended as the most appropriate research design to ensure the validity of quality of life assessments. However, high attrition and non-random missing data in quality of life studies for terminal cancer patients raise questions about generalizability of the study, and at worst they may jeopardize interpretation of the results. Appropriate time frames for eliciting information directly from terminal cancer patients can ensure the internal and external validity of quality of life research in end-of-life care, allow health care professionals to detect sensitively the effects of end-of-life care within the shortest intervention period, and make comparisons across studies possible. From a review of the literature, it is recommended that the appropriate time frame for interviewing terminal cancer patients about their quality of life be a weekly assessment schedule based on the following factors: (a) the median survival of terminal cancer patients enrolling in a hospice/palliative care program is approximately 30 days and there are substantial number of patients who die in each week; (b) at the final weeks of life, quality of life and symptoms of some terminal cancer patients change dramatically; and (c) the shortest intervention period that is likely to give a clinically significant effect of end-of-life care management is 1 week after the enrollment in end-of-life care.     

新型农村合作医疗城市定点医疗机构即时结报研究

新农合城市定点医疗机构即时结报可方便参合农民报账,可提高参合农民受益水平,有利于城市定点医疗机构建立自我约束机制,有利于防范不法分子骗保行为。建议国家出台政策,从2009年起,各省开展试点,3年内以省为单位全面推开。各省建立相对统一的补偿模式。规范的回款机制和转诊制度,改革和完善与即时结报不相适应的管理体制和运行机制。     

医疗质量风险预警指标体系的构建

目前,国内外已开展的医疗质量风险预警体系的研究,绝大多数旨在为当地卫生部门的决策科学化提供理论上的指导,而着眼于医院的相关研究非常有限。为了构建医疗质量评价指标体系,在情报调研的基础上,以医院为研究对象,借鉴一系列国际公认的医疗质量评价指标体系,主要侧重于过程控制和标准化管理,对来自6所三甲医院的33位专家进行了实地调研。调研结果采用AHP法确定指标权重和风险等级,探索性地构建了一套医院医疗质量风险管理预警体系。然后,采用德尔菲法对研究成果进行验证,初步形成一套较为客观、科学并得到有关专家认可的医院医疗质量风险管理预警指标体系。     

Review of 128 quality of care mechanisms: A framework and mapping for health system stewards

Health system stewards have the critical task to identify quality of care deficiencies and resolve underlying system limitations. Despite a growing evidence-base on the effectiveness of certain mechanisms for improving quality of care, frameworks to facilitate the oversight function of stewards and the use of mechanisms to improve outcomes remain underdeveloped. This review set out to catalogue a wide range of quality of care mechanisms and evidence on their effectiveness, and to map these in a framework along two dimensions: (i) governance subfunctions; and (ii) targets of quality of care mechanisms. To identify quality of care mechanisms, a series of searches were run in Health Systems Evidence and PubMed. Additional grey literature was reviewed. A total of 128 quality of care mechanisms were identified. For each mechanism, searches were carried out for systematic reviews on their effectiveness. These findings were mapped in the framework defined. The mapping illustrates the range and evidence for mechanisms varies and is more developed for some target areas such as the health workforce. Across the governance sub-functions, more mechanisms and with evidence of effectiveness are found for setting priorities and standards and organizing and monitoring for action. This framework can support system stewards to map the quality of care mechanisms used in their systems and to uncover opportunities for optimization backed by systems thinking.     

2004-2005年广东省第3次死因回顾性调查样本代表性与数据质量评价

目的阐述2004—2005年广东省第3次死因回顾调查样本代表性与数据质量,为资料利用提供依据。方法通过多阶段分层整群抽样方法,对广东省13个县（市、区）2004-2005年全部死亡人群进行回顾调查,依据人口学特征、拟舍优度检验、玛叶指数等对2004-2005年广东省第3次死因回顾调查样本（其中12个调查点数据）的代表性进行评价,从死因诊断依据、死亡率、死因编码质量等方面评价数据质量。结果本次调查覆盖全省12个市、县（区）共758．5472万人口,无论是年龄构成还是性别比、地域和社会经济等指标统计学检验,还是年龄构成的拟合优度检验,调查样本与2000年广东省人口普查户籍人口相比,差异均无统计学意义（均P〉0．05）;选取调查样本10—69岁和20～79岁2个年龄组样本,计算玛叶指数为3．59,说明调查样本人口数据无年龄偏好。本次调查地区共收集2004-2005年12个调查点死亡个案99919例,平均粗死亡率为658．6／10万,10个调查点粗死亡率符合质控要求,婴儿死亡率为6．7％。,全部死亡个案的死因最高诊断单位以县及以上医疗机构为主,达62．48％,死因最高诊断依据以临床＋理化和临床诊断为主,合占85．93％;其中死于恶性肿瘤个案的诊断单位以县及以上医疗机构诊断比例最高,达89．33％,诊断依据以尸检、病理、手术和临床＋理化等合计比例达83．76％。全部调查个案的编码总体准确率达96．07％,死因不明率为1．89％,死因不准确率为1．56％,死因错误率为0．48％。结论2004—2005年广东省第3次死因回顾调查样本代表性良好,调查结果可代表全省情况,调查过程质控严格,数据完整性、可靠性和准确性指标均符合质控要求,数据质量良好。