The 2001 foot and mouth disease epidemic in the United Kingdom: animal welfare perspectives

The management of the foot and mouth disease (FMD) epidemic which occurred in the United Kingdom (UK) in 2001 resulted in widespread animal welfare problems. These problems arose firstly because of the large numbers of animals slaughtered to bring the epidemic under control, which meant that the conditions under which animals were slaughtered and the manner in which this was carried out often breached regulations concerning welfare at slaughter. Secondly, the restrictions imposed on movements, especially animal movements, resulted in what appeared to be readily avoidable difficulties with livestock dying from, for example, food shortages and pregnant animals giving birth under unsuitable conditions. This brief review is based on the personal experiences of the authors as well as relevant observations and reports from a variety of sources.     

The field effectiveness of routine and emergency vaccination with an inactivated vaccine against foot and mouth disease

High potency, inactivated foot and mouth disease (FMD) vaccines may be used in non endemic countries for emergency vaccination during outbreaks in order to prevent virus spread. In endemic countries either standard or high potency vaccines are used for routine vaccination. Despite their wide use there is a shortage of data on the field effectiveness of inactivated FMD vaccines. Epidemics of FMD caused by viruses of serotype O occur frequently in Israel, where a high potency (≥6PD₅₀) vaccine is used for both routine and emergency vaccination. We investigated an outbreak of FMD caused by a virus of serotype O, which took place during 2011 in a feedlot and an adjacent dairy herd. Post outbreak testing of antibodies against non-structural protein demonstrated that infection occurred in 96% of the calves that received two doses of vaccine at least three months prior to the outbreak and more than 50% showed clinical signs consistent with FMD. Replacement heifers that had been vaccinated 3–5 times with the last vaccination administered 7 months prior to the outbreak were all infected and 18% showed clinical signs. Testing of cattle sera of the same vaccination status as the affected cattle demonstrated low neutralizing antibody (NA) titers against the field virus strain and an r₁ value of 0.37 compared to the vaccine strain. In contrast, cattle vaccinated only once but up to two weeks before the outbreak, were almost all protected from clinical disease and to a lesser extent, protected from FMD virus infection, despite low NA titers. We conclude that emergency vaccination was highly effective due to a mechanism not associated with NA, whereas routine vaccination with the same vaccine formulation provided only limited protection due to poor longevity of the elicited immunity and low matching with the field strain (despite an r₁ higher than 0.3).     

Clinical variation in foot and mouth disease: pigs

In intensively reared pigs, the introduction of foot and mouth disease (FMD) results in severe clinical disease and vesicular lesions in adult and fattening animals, and high mortality in piglets. Vaccination of uninfected herds can assist FMD control and eradication programmes by reducing susceptibility of pigs older than 12 to 14 weeks and providing early protection to piglets through maternal antibody, but once FMD is established on a farm, vaccination alone will not prevent recurrent outbreaks of clinical disease.     

Clinical variation in foot and mouth disease: cattle

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) in cattle is usually clinically obvious in the unvaccinated herds of countries in which the disease occurs only occasionally. However, in vaccinated herds and in some breeds indigenous to areas in which FMD is endemic, the disease may circulate undetected.     

Hand,foot and mouth disease in China: evaluating an automated system for the detection of outbreaks

Objective

To evaluate the performance of China’s infectious disease automated alert and response system in the detection of outbreaks of hand, foot and mouth (HFM) disease.

Methods

We estimated size, duration and delay in reporting HFM disease outbreaks from cases notified between 1 May 2008 and 30 April 2010 and between 1 May 2010 and 30 April 2012, before and after automatic alert and response included HFM disease. Sensitivity, specificity and timeliness of detection of aberrations in the incidence of HFM disease outbreaks were estimated by comparing automated detections to observations of public health staff.

Findings

The alert and response system recorded 106 005 aberrations in the incidence of HFM disease between 1 May 2010 and 30 April 2012 – a mean of 5.6 aberrations per 100 days in each county that reported HFM disease. The response system had a sensitivity of 92.7% and a specificity of 95.0%. The mean delay between the reporting of the first case of an outbreak and detection of that outbreak by the response system was 2.1 days. Between the first and second study periods, the mean size of an HFM disease outbreak decreased from 19.4 to 15.8 cases and the mean interval between the onset and initial reporting of such an outbreak to the public health emergency reporting system decreased from 10.0 to 9.1 days.

Conclusion

The automated alert and response system shows good sensitivity in the detection of HFM disease outbreaks and appears to be relatively rapid. Continued use of this system should allow more effective prevention and limitation of such outbreaks in China.     

Managing compensation for economic losses in areas surrounding foot and mouth disease outbreaks: the response of France

This article describes the French scheme for providing compensation to stock farmers located in the prevention and surveillance zones in the vicinity of foot and mouth disease (FMD) outbreak sites and for economic losses suffered as a result of restrictions on animal and animal product movement. As early as 1991, the Groupements de Defense Sanitaire (GDS: Animal Health Groups--associations of stock farmers dealing with health issues, recognised under French law) set up a Compensation Fund that was put to use during the FMD episode of 2001. The Fund paid out FRF6,488,000 (Euro989,000) to stockbreeders in the five affected departments (French local administrative divisions). Based on the principle of a national mutual benefit society, the Compensation Fund is the first instance of a system of private compensation, outside of conventional insurance schemes, based on a convention between French stock farmers. With decentralised management and speed of implementation, the Compensation Fund has proved its worth. The Fund now needs to be adjusted on the basis of changes introduced in FMD control policy in France and possibly the European Union.     

Survey of foot and mouth disease in France

The Foot and Mouth disease is considered a relatively mild disease in susceptible animals but it has a considerable economical impact in France and worldwide due to the huge economical losses that it generates. A system for the prevention of the disease was developed thirty years ago and has since been continuously improved. The current system for the prevention of FMD is based on training and information of all those involved in the surveillance of susceptible animals, over all the national territory, and on the control of imported animals and animal products. This system, developed in close collaboration with the European Commission and the other EU member states, allows control measures to be implemented almost instantaneously, if a case is suspected to avoid spreading of the disease.     

The economics of foot and mouth disease

The economic effects of foot and mouth disease (FMD) are summarised. Losses arise from the direct effects of the disease on production, costs of disease control and restriction of trade. Direct effects are of greatest importance in dairy and pig production systems. Costs of disease control, whether by stamping-out or vaccination are high. Even countries that are free of the disease incur prevention and emergency preparedness costs. The published studies indicate that where FMD eradication is feasible, this is the least-cost policy option, even allowing for the costs of prevention, emergency preparedness and the risk of outbreaks. Where eradication is not feasible, it is economically beneficial to protect high-producing livestock by vaccination. Vaccination of lower-producing animals may also be justified, especially where these animals produce milk or traction power, or where this would serve to protect high-producing livestock from disease challenge.     

Future research on foot and mouth disease

The recent outbreaks of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in Argentina, Europe, Japan, the Republic of Korea, South Africa and Uruguay have brought to world attention the devastating effects of the disease in a na?ve population and the social and economic costs of control and eradication. The fact that much still remains unknown about the natural history of FMD virus came as a surprise to some. This paper attempts to identify where research should be directed in order to be better prepared in the future.     

Clinical variation in foot and mouth disease: sheep and goats

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) in adult sheep and goats is frequently mild or unapparent, but can cause high mortality in young animals. The recent outbreak of FMD in the United Kingdom has highlighted the importance of sheep in the epidemiology of the disease, although there have been numerous examples in the past where small ruminants have been responsible for the introduction of FMD into previously disease-free countries. The difficulty in making a clinical diagnosis should encourage the development of more rapid screening tests to assist in future control programmes.     

手足口病多次感染的地理流行病学研究

目的揭示手足口病多次感染的发生率、人群及空间分布的特点,为手足口病的防控提供科学依据。方法利用疾病监测信息报告管理系统手足口病的个案数据,在数据库软件的支持下筛选多次感染的病例,计算发生率、分析人群的特点并遵照地理流行病学的原理与方法,揭示其空间分布的规律和特点。结果在全国2008年5月至2009年5月间发生的70多万个手足口病患儿中,有798名患两次及以上的感染,发生率约为千分之一。其空间分布多集中在我国南方(广东、广西)及手足口病病原复杂地区,全国除西藏、黑龙江等少数几个省外普遍存在。多次感染的患者中,男性多于女性,年龄多小于5岁,3岁以下儿童多为散居儿童,3岁以上儿童多为托幼机构抚育。结论手足口病的分布有明显的地域差异,且在不同年龄组与性别间也有明显的不同。地理流行病学方法是快速、直观揭示这些变化的有效手段。     

Combating foot and mouth disease in Brazil: private sector participation

The fact that cattle herds in Brazil are in such good health and that the meat on the domestic and international markets is safe and of high quality is largely due to the campaign to combat foot and mouth disease and to the improvements that this campaign has made in the organisation of the Brazilian bovine production industry. Launched in 1965, the campaign set itself ambitious objectives, but thanks to the direct participation of producer organisations it received the necessary support and funding. The results are reflected in the growing number of states--fifteen to date--that are internationally recognised as free from foot and mouth disease with vaccination. Thanks to the active participation of producers and of the entire production chain in foot and mouth disease eradication efforts, Brazil has risen to become a leading player in the international beef trade.