Anatomy of the pectoralis minor tendon and its use in acromioclavicular joint reconstruction

Many procedures described for operative management of acromioclavicular joint separations entail transfer of the coracoacromial ligament. We sought to describe the anatomy and morphology of the pectoralis minor tendon better, to assess its anatomic potential as a substitute for sacrificing the coracoacromial ligament, and to compare the ultimate tensile strength of the pectoralis minor with that of the coracoacromial ligament and detached coracoclavicular ligament. The morphology of the pectoralis minor tendon was carefully delineated and compared with that of the coracoacromial ligament, and 10 paired fresh-frozen cadaveric shoulders were tested to failure by applying a single uniaxial tensile load. Anatomic study of the pectoralis minor tendon confirmed its adequacy as a source of local autograft tissue in acromioclavicular joint reconstruction. We hypothesize that, in cases of acromioclavicular joint separation necessitating operative intervention, the use of the pectoralis minor tendon as a potential source of autograft tissue is anatomically feasible and it is slightly stronger than the coracoacromial ligament.     

Evaluation and management of acromioclavicular joint injuries

The acromioclavicular joint is stabilized by the coracoclavicular and acromioclavicular ligaments and by the trapezius and deltoid muscles. Joint dislocation commonly results from a direct blow to the acromion. Injury types I through III are generally treated nonoperatively, whereas types IV through VI are treated operatively. Nonoperative protocols should always begin with ice and immobilization. Operative techniques include acromioclavicular ligament repair, dynamic transfer of the conjoined tendon, coracoclavicular ligament reconstruction, and coracoacromial ligament transfer. The goal with any injury type should always be full return to the patient's preinjury condition.     

Treatment of complete acromioclavicular separations with a modified Weaver and Dunn technique

The purpose of this article is to describe the indications, operative technique, and postoperative rehabilitation protocol for treatment of complete acromioclavicular separations. A modified Weaver and Dunn technique is described, with a detailed harvesting procedure of the coracoacromial ligament, along with a wafer of bone for anatomical reconstruction of the coracoclavicular ligaments. A suture anchor is used to provide temporary stability to the acromioclavicular joint while the transferred coracoacromial ligament heals in the new position.     

Editorial Commentary: The Coracoid Process as the Origin of Several Ligaments: What May Be Cut,What Must Be Refixed?

The coracoid process is the origin of the trapezoid ligament, the deltoid ligament, and the coracoacromial ligament (CAL). Detailed knowledge about their anatomy is crucial for surgical procedures such as the reconstruction of the coracoclavicular ligaments or coracoid transfer. Although the coracoclavicular ligaments are considered important stabilizers of the acromioclavicular joint and are therefore highly protected, the CAL seems less important, which is why it is generally cut during coracoid transfer procedures. However, there is evidence that the CAL contributes to muscular balance and stabilization of the shoulder girdle. Therefore, an individual approach should be considered during coracoid transfer to save at least parts of the CAL.     

改良Weaver法治疗陈旧性重度肩锁关节脱位

目的 观察改良Weaver法治疗陈旧性重度肩锁关节脱位的临床疗效。方法 用1枚克氏针由肩峰通过肩锁关节穿入锁骨外端固定肩锁关节，喙肩韧带的肩峰端切断，旋转移位重建喙锁韧带。结果 23例术后随访1－5年，按优，良，差标准评定疗效，优19例（82．6％），良3例（13．0％），差1例（4．3％），优良率95．6％，结论 该方法操作简单，创伤小，远期疗效好，可满意恢复肩关节功能。     

Aktuelle operative Therapiestrategien bei chronischer Akromioklavikularsgelenkinstabilität

Chronic instability of the acromioclavicular joint (AC joint) results if the initial acromioclavicular joint luxation has been missed or if the rehabilitative or surgical treatment was not successful. Late repairs after a traumatic luxation are difficult to deal with because the biological healing response for reconstitution of the ligaments seems to be compromised. A meticulous diagnostic examination should be performed paying special attention to the character and direction of instability (static versus dynamic and vertical versus horizontal). For this purpose a specified classification system should be used (Hedtmann and Heers). A new surgical technique for stabilization of chronic AC joint instability has been established and biomechanically evaluated. The technique includes an augmented modified coracoacromial ligament (only the medial half of the ligament) transfer supplemented by coracoclavicular polyester augmentation. In an in vitro model the technique was shown to restore anterior and superior translation of the intact AC joint. An increase of translation compared to the level of the intact joint was statistically significant only for the posterior direction (127%, 3.8 mm intact versus 4.6 mm following reconstruction; p<0.05). Therefore, for further improvement of the technique some form of acromioclavicular ligament reconstruction (posterosuperior) could be profitable. In conclusion the presented surgical technique (augmented CA ligament transfer) reveals promising biomechanical results in an in vitro model and may serve as an alternative to current coracoclavicular ligament reconstruction techniques using autologous tendon grafts.     

可吸收材料和金属内固定治疗肩锁关节脱位疗效的比较

目的比较生物可吸收材料(Biopoly人工韧带)与金属内固定治疗肩锁关节完全脱位的疗效。方法采用两种方法治疗28例肩锁关节完全脱位。可吸收韧带组12例,采用人工韧带重建喙锁韧带和“8”字张力带重建肩锁韧带治疗;金属内固定组16例,采用克氏针结合钢丝张力带或螺钉结合钢丝张力带治疗。其中,男17例,女11例。均为新鲜脱位,脱位距就诊时间为0～8d,平均1.5d。结果28例均获随访,随访时间8～70个月,平均39.5个月。根据术后X线片和关节功能恢复情况评定疗效,局部功能评定参照Lazcano标准。可吸收韧带组:优10例,良2例;金属内固定组:优13例,良2例,差1例。两种治疗方法临床效果无统计学差异。结论生物可吸收人工韧带像金属内固定一样是治疗肩锁关节脱位较理想的方法之一,并具有无须二次手术取出内固定物的优点。     

应用异体肌腱重建喙锁韧带治疗肩锁关节完全脱位

目的：探索应用异体肌腱重建喙锁韧带治疗肩锁关节完全脱位一种新的手术方法。方法：从1997年10月2001年12月，共21例肩锁关节完全脱位患者，接受了经过深低温处理的同种异体屈指肌腱，采用在喙锁韧带 位置，穿过软组织隧道，行编织缝合，进行立体“8”字重建的治疗方法，恢复喙锁韧带在垂直方向对肩锁关节的稳定。在21例接受此治疗方法患者中，有19例得到了1年以上的随访。随访时间1240个月，平均16．8个月。结果：采用Lazzcano和Karlsson综合评分标准，优15例，良4例。X线片显示重建喙锁韧带部分骨化者2例。结论：异体肌腱重建喙锁韧带治疗肩锁关节完全脱位可以避免自体取材造成的副损伤及其引起的并发症，供材可提前制作，缩短了手术时间，减少了自体创伤。在组织工程移植尚未完全获得成功的今天，是一种可行的手术方法。     

Subcoracoid dislocation of the acromioclavicular joint

Subcoracoid acromioclavicular dislocations are rarely seen injuries of the shoulder. We present a patient with multiple injuries and a subcoracoid acromioclavicular dislocation resulting from a falling injury. Physical examination revealed painful mechanical block at 90 degrees of abduction and swelling in the acromioclavicular region. Diagnosis was made with direct radiographs and computerized tomography. Treatment consisted of distal clavicular resection and coracoclavicular reconstruction with the transfer of the coracoacromial ligament over the clavicle. The patient had a pain-free shoulder after two years and was capable of performing daily activities despite the presence of coracoclavicular ossification.     

Bone block transfer of coracoacromial ligament in acromioclavicular injury

A bone block transfer of coracoacromial ligament into the medullary canal of the clavicle for Grade III acromioclavicular injury was developed in an attempt to prevent occasional pullout of the ligament in the procedure described by Weaver and Dunn. Fifteen consecutive cases (12 acute, three chronic) with Grade III acromioclavicular injury were treated by this method. All but one patient regained painless full range of shoulder motion. All patients returned to previous activity. Failure of coracoclavicular reconstruction occurred in one case. Asymptomatic focal myositis ossificans developed in four cases with no functional deficit.     

肩锁关节脱位手术复位中肩锁韧带的标志性作用

目的探讨肩锁关节脱位手术复位中修复肩锁韧带的作用。方法对我科2009年04月～2011年07月收治21例肩锁关节脱位采用切开复位锁骨解剖钩状钢板内固定＋肩锁韧带修补术的资料进行回顾性分析。结果本组21例手术中,19例达到肩锁韧带无张力修复,2例未能修复,可修复率达95.2%。术后21例均获得随访,根据Karlsson标准评定疗效,其中优17例,可2例,差2例。结论在肩锁关节脱位治疗中,用锁骨解剖钩状钢板内固定,同时修补喙锁韧带、肩锁韧带是治疗肩锁关节脱位的可靠方法。其中,肩锁韧带的无张力修复对肩锁关节解剖复位有很高的临床使用价值。     

重建喙锁韧带治疗急性肩锁关节脱位的疗效观察

目的探讨重建喙锁韧带治疗急性肩锁关节脱位的手术方法及临床疗效。方法自2010—09--2012—02对28例急性肩锁关节脱位行同种异体肌腱移植结合双带袢钢板重建喙锁韧带术治疗。结果本组获12～29个月。平均17．2个月的随访,肩外形正常,X线复查肩锁关节解剖关系正常。参照Karlsson标准行肩关节功能评定：优25例。良3例。结论应用同种异体肌腱移植结合双带袢钢板重建喙锁韧带治疗肩锁关节脱位,可长期恢复肩锁关节的解剖关系、维持喙锁间隙、术后并发症少,术后配合个性化的康复计划,肩关节功能恢复满意。     

空心钉固定联合半腱肌肌腱重建喙锁韧带治疗Ⅲ度肩锁关节脱位

目的探讨空心钉固定联合半腱肌肌腱重建喙锁韧带治疗Ⅲ度肩锁关节脱位的疗效。方法对22例Ⅲ度肩锁关节脱位患者行空心钉固定联合半腱肌肌腱重建喙锁韧带治疗。结果患者均获随访,时间10～32个月。肩关节功能恢复良好,局部畸形消失,未见复发。参照Karlsson疗效评定标准:A级18例,B级4例。结论该手术方法设计符合生物力学的要求,方法简单,复位作用良好,是治疗Ⅲ度新鲜肩锁关节脱位有效方法。     

Current concepts in the diagnosis and management of acromioclavicular dislocations

Not all complete dislocations of the acromioclavicular joint should be treated by one method alone. A classification of acromioclavicular dislocation is presented and is based upon the pathology of the injury. Grade I sprain results from a mild force that causes tearing of only a few fibers of the acromioclavicular joint. Grade II sprains are caused by a moderate force with a rupture of the capsule and acromioclavicular ligament. Grade III sprains result from a severe force that ruptures both the acromioclavicular and coracoclavicular ligaments and causes a dislocation of the joint. Grade IV dislocation may be associated with an avulsion fracture of the coracoclavicular ligament from the inferior lateral clavicle, severe tearing or other injury to the soft-tissue envelope about the lateral clavicle, or a buttonhole injury of the lateral clavicle. Grade V dislocation refers to a posterior displacement of the lateral clavicle from any cause, while Grade VI relates to an inferior lateral clavicle displacement. Grades I, II, and most Grade III injuries can be treated conservatively. The indications for open treatment of Grade III injuries are reviewed. It is recommended that Grade IV and most Grade V and VI dislocations be managed with open methods.     

Coracoclavicular ligament reconstruction using the lateral half of the conjoined tendon

To preserve the coracoacromial (CA) ligament, we have used the lateral half of the conjoined tendon as an autograft source to replace the coracoclavicular (CC) ligament. The purpose of this study is to compare the ultimate tensile strength of the lateral 12 mm of the conjoined tendon with that of the CA ligament and the CC ligament. Eight paired cadaveric male shoulders were tested to tensile failure with a custom pneumatic testing apparatus. Although the lateral 12 mm of the conjoined tendon was stronger than the CA ligament, this difference was not statistically significant (P =.37). However, the intact CC ligament (621 +/- 209 N) was approximately 250% stronger than either the lateral 12 mm of the conjoined tendon (265 +/- 79 N, P <.001) or the CA ligament (246 +/- 69 N, P <.001). We believe that the lateral half of the conjoined tendon is a viable alternative autograft source for reconstruction of the CC ligament in cases of symptomatic acromioclavicular joint dislocation. Though not as strong as the native CC ligaments, the conjoined tendon is slightly stronger than the commonly used CA ligament.     

三Endobutton钢板解剖重建喙锁韧带治疗肩锁关节脱位

目的探讨三Endobutton钢板解剖重建喙锁韧带治疗肩锁关节脱位的初步临床疗效。方法对25例肩锁关节脱位患者应用三Endobutton钢板解剖重建喙锁韧带治疗的临床疗效进行分析。结果 25例均获随访,时间14～29个月。X线检查证实肩锁关节脱位均完全复位。肩关节外展活动范围术前为40°～80°,术后为140°～150°。肩关节功能按Constant标准,评分术前为(66.5±3.2)分,术后3个月为(90.5±2.3)分,术后6个月为(93.5±3.1)分。结论三Endobutton钢板解剖重建喙锁韧带治疗肩锁关节脱位固定确实,不损伤关节面,术后患者可以早期功能锻炼,无需二次手术,疗效满意。     

Current concepts in management of ACJ injuries

Acromioclavicular joint injury is common in young individuals who suffer direct trauma to the shoulder. Treatment of acromioclavicular dislocation is controversial with regards to the indication of operative management, timing of surgery, whether to perform open or arthroscopic surgery, method of stabilisation (rigid or non-rigid) and type of graft used for repair or reconstruction. Current evidence supports conservative management for Rockwood types I and II, while types IV, V and VI benefit from surgery. The optimal management of type III injuries in high demand patients remains contentious. Surgical options include acromioclavicular fixation, coracoclavicular fixation and coracoclavicular ligament reconstruction. Few studies with a low level of evidence suggest arthroscopic techniques and anatomical ligament reconstruction have better outcomes when compared to older techniques of rigid coracoclavicular fixation. The aim of this article is to look at the current evidence and address these controversial issues.     

Biomechanics and comparison of two operative methods of treatment of complete acromioclavicular separation

Sixty-three complete acromioclavicular separations were treated by 2 operative methods. Acromioclavicular wiring gave 73% acceptable results while wire or Dacron coracoclavicular loop gave 94% acceptable results. Complications, especially broken, bent, or backed-out wires were common with acromioclavicular wiring. Of 44 patients treated by acromioclavicular wiring, 5 required late distal clavicle resection and 4 of these had retained menisci. Loop fixation is mechanically superior since the loop is in the direction of the tensile forces. In acromioclavicular wiring, however, the fixation Kirschner wires are subjected to high bending moments. Loop fixation avoids violation of the acromioclavicular joint but does not restrict rotation of the clavicle. The operation is simple to perform and postoperative immobilization is minimal. Woven Dacron may be superior to surgical wire for loop fixation in that unlike wire it does not require removal by a second operation. Woven Dacron may also stimulate coracoclavicular ligament reconstitution.     

三重固定纽扣钢板解剖重建陈旧性Ⅲ度肩锁关节脱位

目的探讨三重固定纽扣钢板解剖重建喙锁韧带治疗陈旧性Ⅲ度肩锁关节脱位的手术方法及临床疗效。方法 2009年1月-2010年6月,对14例陈旧性Ⅲ度肩锁关节脱位行三重固定纽扣钢板解剖重建喙锁韧带治疗。男10例,女4例;年龄26～52岁,平均38.5岁。致伤原因:交通事故伤7例,摔伤5例,砸伤2例。左侧9例,右侧5例。受伤至手术时间29～75 d,平均49d。肩锁关节有不同程度压痛,关节主、被动活动明显受限,X线片示肩锁关节完全脱位。按Allman分型标准,均为Ⅲ度完全性脱位。结果术后切口均Ⅰ期愈合,无血管、神经损伤及感染等早期并发症发生。患者均获随访,随访时间13～30个月,平均18.3个月。术后1周1例患者发生复位部分丢失,X线片检查见肩锁关节半脱位,未给予特殊处理,其余患者无再脱位或其他相关并发症发生。末次随访时,根据美国肩肘外科协会(ASES)评分标准,获(90.8±4.1)分,与术前的(65.3±4.4)分比较,差异有统计学意义(t=-17.57,P=0.00);Constant-Murley评分为(91.7±3.9)分,与术前的(71.5±4.6)分比较,差异有统计学意义(t=-75.02,P=0.00)。简明肩关节功能测试问卷(SST)的肯定答案为7～12个,平均9.7个。结论三重固定纽扣钢板解剖重建喙锁韧带可有效治疗陈旧性Ⅲ度肩锁关节脱位,早期疗效满意。