锁骨钩钢板治疗新鲜 NeerⅡ型锁骨远端骨折及Tossy Ⅲ型肩锁关节脱位

目的 总结锁骨钩钢板内固定治疗新鲜Neer Ⅱ型锁骨远端骨折及Tossy Ⅲ型肩锁关节脱位的手术方法及临床疗效.方法 2004年8月～2008年10月,应用锁骨钩钢板治疗28 例Neer Ⅱ型锁骨远端骨折和21 例 Tossy Ⅲ型肩锁关节脱位,术中仅行锁骨钩钢板固定,未刻意修复喙锁韧带、喙肩韧带.术后X光片评估锁骨骨折愈合及肩锁关节脱位的复位,根据Constant-Murley 评分系统评价肩关节功能康复情况.结果 手术后复查X 线片示锁骨远端骨折及肩锁关节均完全复位.患者均获随访,随访12～48月,平均14.9月,均提示锁骨远端骨折愈合、无螺钉松动、钢板或钩部折断.术后8～18月内固定取出后,无肩锁关节再脱位.2例术后4个月患肩活动过大时明显感肩部酸痛不适,8月后取出钢板后症状消失.随访终末,所有患者Constant-Murley 评分平均为89.6分(83～92分).结论 采用锁骨钩钢板内固定治疗新鲜NeerⅡ型锁骨远端骨折及Tossy Ⅲ型肩锁关节脱位,具有复位简单、固定确切、肩关节可以早期活动、肩关节功能恢复好等优点.     

喙锁固定结合锁骨远端解剖锁定钢板治疗NeerⅡ型锁骨远端骨折

目的探讨应用喙锁固定结合锁骨远端解剖锁定钢板治疗NeerⅡ型锁骨远端骨折的方法及疗效。方法回顾性分析2010年6月-2017年3月收治的26例NeerⅡ型锁骨远端骨折患者采用喙锁固定结合锁骨远端解剖锁定钢板治疗,采用Constant评分标准评定肩关节功能,复查肩关节X线片,观察骨折愈合、并发症情况。结果术后24例获随访,随访时间10～18个月,平均14个月。患者的切口均Ⅰ期愈合。复查X线片示骨折均愈合,愈合时间12～16周,平均14周。随访期间无骨折移位、内固定物断裂、失效等情况发生。最终随访时Constant肩关节功能评分为82～96分,平均92分。结论应用喙锁固定可增强喙锁稳定性,结合锁骨远端解剖锁定钢板固定,术后早期可进行功能康复训练,疗效满意,是治疗不稳定NeerⅡ型锁骨远端骨折的一种有效方法。     

不修复韧带的解剖型锁定钢板治疗 NeerⅡ型锁骨远端骨折

[目的]：探讨应用解剖型锁定钢板治疗NeerⅡ锁骨远端骨折的临床疗效。[方法]：回顾性分析2012年1月—2014年6月收治的9例NeerⅡ锁骨远端骨折患者的临床资料。9例患者男6例,女3例;年龄21～61岁,平均43岁。术中所有患者均未修复喙锁韧带,应用解剖型锁定钢板内固定治疗骨折。术后定期X线检查明确骨折愈合情况,按照Neer评分标准进行肩关节功能评分。[结果]：手术均顺利完成,无感染、骨折不愈合等并发症的发生,术中无血管神经损伤。本组9例患者均获得随访6～18个月,平均12个月,骨折全部愈合,愈合时间10-16周,平均12周,术后末次随访根据Neer肩关节功能评分结果5例优,3例良。[结论]：锁骨远端解剖锁定钢板内固定是治疗NeerⅡ型锁骨远端骨折的有效方法,术后肩关节疼痛及活动受限发生率低,有利于早期功能锻炼,值得临床推广应用。     

锁骨钩钢板治疗锁骨远端骨折和肩锁关节脱位

目的探讨AO锁骨钩钢板(CHP)治疗TossyⅢ型肩锁关节脱位和NeerⅡ型锁骨远端骨折的疗效。方法1999～2002年运用锁骨钩钢板治疗TossyⅢ型肩锁关节脱位和NeerⅡ型锁骨远端骨折22例,所有病例均直接修复断裂的肩锁韧带。结果22例患者均获随访,随访6～24个月,平均12个月。术后2周肩关节活动基本恢复正常,平均屈曲90°,外展90°,取出CHP时间为6～12个月,平均8个月,按Karlsson疗效评定标准,肩关节功能优良率100%。结论锁骨钩钢板是治疗TossyⅢ型肩锁关节脱位和NeerⅡ型锁骨远端骨折的一种良好的方法。     

锁定钢板治疗锁骨远端Neer Ⅱb型骨折的疗效分析

[目的]探讨锁骨远端锁定加压钢板内固定方法治疗NeerⅡb型锁骨远端骨折的临床疗效。[方法]回顾性分析2012年3月~2013年8月采用锁骨远端前外侧lateral compression plate(LCP)治疗15例NeerⅡb型锁骨远端骨折的资料,男9例,女6例;年龄22~64岁,平均42.1岁;左侧5例,右侧10例。采用锁骨上方横行切口,复位骨折后使用锁定钢板内固定,对于钢板固定后肩锁关节仍不稳定的,采用喙突置入带线锚钉修复喙锁韧带。术后定期摄X线片,采用Constant、SF-36评分系统分别对术后肩关节功能及全身功能进行评定。[结果]15例锁骨远端骨折患者均获随访,随访时间14~26个月,平均20.5个月。X线片显示锁骨骨折均在4~6个月内愈合,平均骨折愈合时间4.5个月。Constant肩关节功能评分,优11例,良4例,优良率100%。与健侧肩关节的功能评分接近。SF-36评分为85.5~100分,平均94.6分。末次随访时,无1例发生钢板断裂、钢板周围骨折和肩袖损伤等并发症。[结论]切开复位锁骨远端锁定加压钢板内固定方法治疗NeerⅡb型锁骨远端骨折能取得良好的临床疗效,具有肩关节功能恢复好、并发症少等优点,是治疗锁骨远端骨折较好的内固定方法。     

喙肩韧带移位加LCP锁骨钩钢板治疗肩锁关节脱位及锁骨远端骨折

目的 探讨喙肩韧带移位加LCP锁骨钩钢板治疗RockwoodⅢ-Ⅵ型肩锁关节脱位及NeerⅡ型锁骨远端骨折的临床疗效.方法 利用喙肩韧带移位加LCP锁骨钩钢板治疗NeerⅡ型骨折9例,Rockwood Ⅲ～Ⅵ型肩锁关节脱位18例.结果 术后肩关节功能均为优,无锁骨下神经血管损伤、钢板断裂、骨折移位、肩锁关节再脱位、锁骨远端再骨折等并发症的发生.结论 喙肩韧带移位加LCP锁骨钩钢板治疗Rockwood Ⅲ～Ⅵ型肩锁关节脱位及NeerⅡ型骨折,操作简便、安全牢靠、并发症少,可早期功能锻炼,值得推广.     

锁定钢板联合克氏针内固定治疗NeerⅡB型锁骨远端骨折的临床疗效

目的探讨锁定钢板联合克氏针内固定治疗NeerⅡB型锁骨远端骨折的临床疗效。方法回顾性分析自2017-01—2020-10采用锁定钢板联合克氏针内固定治疗的36例NeerⅡB型锁骨远端骨折,沿锁骨表面作横弧形切口,自喙突内侧约2 cm至肩锁关节处。显露锁骨远端,切开部分三角肌止点并探查喙锁韧带损伤情况,骨折解剖复位后,用1枚克氏针固定骨折远近端,再于锁骨上方置入锁骨远端锁定解剖钢板。喙锁韧带断裂以1号可吸收线缝合。结果 36例均顺利完成手术并获得完整随访,随访时间3～25个月,平均10.0个月。未出现切口感染、退钉、肩部疼痛及骨折延迟愈合等并发症。手术时间41.0～72.0 min,平均50.3 min。术中出血量70～125 mL,平均95.0 mL。骨折愈合时间8.2～11.5周,平均8.6周。末次随访时Constant-Muley肩关节功能评分88.0～96.0分,平均93.5分;按Constant-Muley肩关节功能评分评价疗效:优28例,良5例,可3例。结论锁定钢板联合克氏针内固定治疗NeerⅡB型锁骨远端骨折手术操作简便,疗效满意,术后并发症较少,值得在临床推广。     

锁骨钩钢板与喙锁螺钉治疗锁骨远端NeerⅡ型骨折的临床疗效比较

目的评价及比较锁骨钩钢板与喙锁螺钉治疗锁骨远端NeerⅡ型骨折的临床疗效。方法自2006年1月～2009年9月间,收治30例锁骨远端NeerⅡ型骨折,患者随机分为两组,复位后分别应用喙锁螺钉和锁骨钩钢板内固定,术后适度限制肩关节活动,随访观察至骨折愈合后行内固定取出术。应用Constant-Murley法评价肩关节功能。比较取出前后和两组患者的肩关节评分。结果锁骨钩钢板骨折愈合时间为10.7周,喙锁螺钉为9.3周。两组患者最终肩关节功能比较差异无统计学意义(P0.05),未发生内固定松动、移位等。其中锁骨钩钢板组有26.7%出现肩痛。两组患者取出后肩痛和运动范围均有改善。结论喙锁螺钉和锁骨钩钢板治疗锁骨远端NeerⅡ型骨折临床疗效相似,功能恢复满意。内固定术后限制肩关节活动范围,骨折愈合后尽早取出,能有效避免内固定并发症。     

锁骨钩钢板治疗新鲜TossyⅢ型肩锁关节脱位和NeerⅡ型锁骨远端骨折

目的探讨锁骨钩钢板内固定治疗新鲜TossyⅢ型肩锁关节脱位和NeerⅡ型锁骨远端骨折的临床疗效、并发症及内固定取出的必要性。方法2005年6月-2008年6月,收治24例TossyⅢ型肩锁关节脱位和20例NeerⅡ型锁骨远端骨折患者。男32例,女12例;年龄18～66岁,平均38.5岁。左侧18例,右侧26例。均为新鲜闭合骨折、脱位。致伤原因:交通伤31例,坠落伤13例。受伤至手术时间2～8d,平均4d。术中采用锁骨钩钢板内固定治疗,肩锁关节脱位复位固定后,未修复断裂喙锁韧带。按照洛杉矶加利福尼亚大学肩关节等级评分系统(UCLA)评定肩关节功能,并对内固定取出前后肩关节的功能状况进行分析。结果术后1周2例切口发生感染,经对症治疗痊愈;其余患者切口均Ⅰ期愈合。术后1周1例发生钢板脱钩,再次手术行钩钢板固定。1例术后3d内肩部剧烈疼痛,去除钢板更换克氏针固定后症状缓解。38例获随访,随访时间8～32个月,平均18个月。无内固定断裂,锁骨远端骨折于术后3～6个月愈合,平均4.2个月。38例末次随访时(内固定去除术前),根据UCLA评定肩关节功能,获优11例,良22例,可5例,优良率为86.8%。20例术后肩关节疼痛患者于3～16个月取出钢板,平均10个月。取出术后患者均获随访,随访时间3～8个月,平均5个月。内固定取出后无再脱位及骨折发生。内固定取出前及取出后UCLA总评分分别为(30.55±4.00)分及(33.85±1.95)分,差异有统计学意义(P0.01)。结论锁骨钩钢板内固定是治疗新鲜TossyⅢ型肩锁关节脱位和NeerⅡ型锁骨远端骨折的有效方法之一。术中规范操作、钢板正确塑形及术后积极功能锻炼是预防并发症的有效方法。对于术后肩部有症状的患者,宜取出内固定以改善肩关节功能。     

不修复喙锁韧带的锁骨钩钢板治疗Craig Ⅱ B型锁骨远端骨折

[目的]探讨锁骨钩钢板固定但不修复喙锁韧带治疗CraigⅡB型锁骨远端骨折的疗效.[方法]对24例新鲜CraigⅡB型锁骨远端骨折行切开复位锁骨钩钢板内固定,术中均不修复喙锁韧带,术后早期功能锻炼.24例均获随访,随访时间12 ～28个月,平均随访15个月.[结果]按Karlsson疗效评价标准:优18例,良5例,差1例,均无钢板断裂、感染、脱钩,关节功能恢复良好.[结论]不修复喙锁韧带锁骨钩钢板是目前治疗CraigⅡB型锁骨远端骨折的最佳方案.     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.