Analysis of invasion-metastasis mechanism in pancreatic cancer: involvement of tight junction transmembrane protein occludin and MEK/ERK signal transduction pathway in cancer cell dissociation

Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 2 (MEK2) was detected as an invasion-metastasis related factor between highly invasive (PC-1.0) and weakly invasive (PC-1) pancreatic cancer cell lines in our previous study. On the other hand, tight junction (TJ) was found to be correlated with carcino-genesis and tumor development. In this study, the expressions and correlation of TJ transmembrane protein occludin and MEK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathway were analyzed to clarify the regulatory mechanism of cell dissociation in pancreatic cancer cells. Two hamster (PC-1.0 and PC-1) and human (AsPC-1 and CAPAN-2) pancreatic cancer cell lines were analyzed immunocytochemically with anti-occludin, phosphorylated MEK1/2 (p-MEK1/2), phosphorylated ERK1/2 (p-ERK1/2) antibodies. MEK1/2 inhibitor U0126 significantly induced the expression of occludin at the cell-cell junction and substantially suppressed the p-MEK1/2 and p-ERK1/2 expressions in PC-1.0 and AsPC-1 cells. In contrast, dissociation factor (DF) treatment obviously disrupted the occludin expressions at the sites of cell-cell junction and markedly induced the p-MEK1/2 and p-ERK1/2 expressions in PC-1 and CAPAN-2 cells. In addition, occludin expressions at cell-cell junction were restored and p-MEK1/2 and p-ERK1/2 expressions were suppressed by subsequent U0126-treatment in DF treated PC-1 and CAPAN-2 cells. Correspondingly, light microscopic images showed that DF induced the dissociation of cell island-like colonies in PC-1 and CAPAN-2 cells, and U0126-treatment induced cell aggregation in these pancreatic cancer cells. Occludin is involved in the cell dissociation in pancreatic cancer cells. Moreover, MEK/ERK signaling pathway probably regulates the cell dissociation status of pancreatic cancer through influencing the intracellular localization and expression of occludin.     

Relationship between the expression of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and the dissociation of pancreatic cancer cells: Involvement of ERK1/2 in the dissociation status of cancer cells

Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 2 (MEK2), the upstream kinase of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) was previously isolated as cancer cell dissociation related factor. In this study, to further clarify the regulatory mechanism of cancer cell dissociation, two hamster (PC-1.0 and PC-1) and human (Capan-2 and AsPC-1) pancreatic cancer cell lines were analyzed immunocytochemically with anti-ERK1, anti-ERK2 and anti-phosphorylated ERK1/2 (p-ERK1/2) antibodies. U0126 (a MEK1/2 inhibitor) significantly suppressed ERK2 and p-ERK1/2 expressions in PC-1.0 and AsPC-1 cells (P<0.05). Cancer cell dissociation factor (DF) markedly induced ERK2 and p-ERK1/2 expressions in PC-1 and Capan-2 cells (P<0.05), and the induced ERK2 and p-ERK1/2 expressions were inhibited by subsequent U0126-treatment (P<0.05). Simultaneously, light microscopic images showed that DF clearly induced cell dissociation in PC-1 and Capan-2 cells, while U0126-treatment induced cell aggregation in these pancreatic cancer cells. ERK2 activation is closely involved in cell dissociation of pancreatic cancer cells.     

Involvement of matrix metalloproteinase-7 in invasion-metastasis through induction of cell dissociation in pancreatic cancer

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mediated mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathway was isolated as invasion-metastasis related factor in pancreatic cancer in our previous studies. Matrix metalloproteinase-7 (MMP-7) and tight junction (TJ) proteins are indicated to be involved in cancer invasion-metastasis. To clarify the underlying mechanism of involvement of MMP-7 in cancer invasion, western blotting, invasion assay and immunohistochemistry were performed in dissociated (PC-1.0 and AsPC-1) and non-dissociated (PC-1 and Capan-2) pancreatic cancer cells, as well as pancreatic cancer tissues. Intracellular MMP-7 protein presented as pre-proenzyme and its expression was decreased by AG1478 (EGFR inhibitor) or U0126 (MEK inhibitor) treatment in pancreatic cancer cells. Activated MMP-7 protein was only detected in the medium of PC-1.0 and AsPC-1 cells, but not detected in the medium of PC-1 and Capan-2 cells. Moreover, MMP-7 treatment significant induced the dissociation of cell colonies in PC-1 and Capan-2 cells. Synchronously, TJ structure was apparently disrupted and translocation of TJ proteins to cytoplasm or extracellular medium was induced in PC-1 and Capan-2 cells. Furthermore, MMP-7 treatment markedly increased the in vitro invasion of PC-1 and Capan-2 cells. In addition, MMP-7 expression at the invasive front was obviously stronger than that at the center of pancreatic cancer tissues. Activation of MMP-7 protein is closely involved in disruption of TJ structure and consequent induction of cell dissociation as well as invasion in pancreatic cancer. EGFR mediated MEK/ERK signaling pathway is implied to be involved in regulation of MMP-7 expression in pancreatic cancer cells.     

Arrangement of expression and distribution of tight junction protein claudin-1 in cell dissociation of pancreatic cancer cells

Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 2 (MEK2) was isolated previously as a potential factor related to cancer cell dissociation in highly (PC-1.0) and weakly (PC-1) invasive pancreatic cancer cells. On the other hand, changes of structure and function of tight junction (TJ) are reported to be correlated with carcinogenesis and tumor development. In this study, immunocytochemistry and Western blot analysis were performed in pancreatic cancer cells using anti-claudin-1, MEK2 and phosphorylated MEK1/2 (p-MEK1/2) antibodies to reveal the correlation between TJ and cancer cell dissociation, as well as the involvement of MEK2 in regulation of TJ in cell dissociation of pancreatic cancer. After incubation with conditioned medium of PC-1.0 cells, plasma membrane distribution of claudin-1 was obviously disrupted, and expressions of MEK2 and p-MEK1/2, as well as dissociation of cell colonies, were significantly induced in PC-1 and CAPAN-2 cells. However, U0126 (a MEK1/2 inhibitor) treatment apparently induced the plasma membrane distribution of claudin-1 and aggregation of single cells in PC-1.0 and AsPC-1 cells, synchronously seriously suppressed MEK2 and p-MEK1/2 expression. Arrangement of expression and distribution of claudin-1 is closely related to cell dissociation status in pancreatic cancer cells through MEK2 activation.     

Involvement of the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 2 in the induction of cell dissociation in pancreatic cancer

In our previous investigation, mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 2 (MEK2) was detected as a factor which was correlated to the potential of invasion-metastasis. In this study, the immunocytochemical, immunohistochemical and mRNA expressions of MEK2 were examined in pancreatic cancer cell lines and tissue samples, respectively. Constitutive expressions of MEK2 and phosphorylated MEK (p-MEK) were observed in PC-1.0 and ASPC-1 cells, which exhibited a growth pattern of single cells, whereas the relevant expressions were quite faint in PC-1 cells and CAPAN-2 cells, which exhibited a growth pattern of island-like clonies. Simultaneous inductions of MEK2 expressions and cell dissociation were observed after the treatment with a conditioned medium (CM) of PC-1.0 cells. The expression of MEK2 and p-MEK were reduced and the cell aggregation was found in PC-1.0 and ASPC-1 cells after U0126 (a MEK inhibitor) treatment. In vivo, both the MEK2 and p-MEK overexpressed in human pancreatic cancer tissues and p-MEK was found to be more strongly expressed in the invasive front than that in the center of tumor (P<0.05). MEK2 is closely related to pancreatic cancer cell dissociation. MEK2 activation is probably involved in the first step of the cascade in the invasion-metastasis of pancreatic cancer.     

Correlation of translocation of tight junction protein Zonula occludens-1 and activation of epidermal growth factor receptor in the regulation of invasion of pancreatic cancer cells

Mitogen-activated protein kinase signal transduction pathway was isolated as a potential factor related to cancer cell dissociation in dissociated (PC-1.0 and AsPC-1) and non-dissociated (PC-1 and Capan-2) pancreatic cancer cells in our previous works. On the other hand, changes of structure and function of tight junction (TJ) are reported to be correlated with carcinogenesis and tumor development. In this study, the translocation of TJ protein Zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and the activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) were examined to demonstrate the involvement and correlation of TJ protein translocation and EGFR activation in the cell dissociation and subsequent invasion of pancreatic cancer. Immunocytochemistry, fluorescence intensity analysis and in vitro invasion assay were performed in dissociated and non-dissociated pancreatic cancer cells. The obvious translocation of cell-cell junction localized ZO-1 protein to the cytoplasm and nucleus, simultaneous activation of EGFR, as well as the dissociation of cell colonies of non-dissociated pancreatic cancer cells were induced by dissociation factor treatment. However, EGFR inhibitor, AG1478, treatment significantly induced the redistribution of ZO-1 protein to the sites of cell-cell junction and the cell aggregation, as well as simultaneous suppression of EGFR activation in both the dissociated and the non-dissociated pancreatic cancer cells. In addition, AG1478 treatment markedly enhanced the in vitro invasion of non-dissociated pancreatic cancer cells. Translocation of TJ protein ZO-1 is closely involved in the induction of invasion through EGFR activation in pancreatic cancer cells.     

沉默ANO9增加胰腺癌细胞AsPC-1放射敏感性的实验研究

目的 探讨ANO9对胰腺癌细胞AsPC-1放射敏感性的影响,以期为胰腺癌临床放射治疗提供新的增敏靶点。方法 蛋白印迹法检测胰腺癌细胞系(BxPC-3、PANC-1、AsPC-1)和正常胰腺细胞系中ANO9表达水平;慢病素感染构建沉默ANO9的AsPC-1稳转株,并用蛋白印迹法进行验证;MTT检测沉默ANO9对放射照射后AsPC-1细胞活力的影响;平板克隆形成实验检测沉默ANO9对AsPC-1细胞放射敏感性的影响;蛋白印迹法检测沉默ANO9对EGFR/ERK信号蛋白表达的影响。结果 与正常胰腺细胞系相比,3个胰腺癌细胞系中ANO9表达均增加(均P<0.05);沉默ANO9后细胞中ANO9蛋白表达水平较对照组显著降低(P<0.05),成功构建沉默ANO9的AsPC-1稳转株;沉默ANO9后AsPC-1细胞对放射照射的敏感性明显增加,放射增敏比为1.57,细胞中EGFR/ERK信号蛋白EGFR和p-ERK1/2均下调(均P<0.05)。结论 沉默ANO9能够显著增加胰腺癌细胞AsPC-1的放射敏感性,其机制可能与抑制EGFR/ ERK信号转导有关,ANO9可能成为遏制胰腺癌进展的新靶标。     

Prognostic value of RKIP and p-ERK in gastric cancer

Background

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway participates in several steps of tumour development and is considered a prominent therapeutic target for the design of chemotherapeutic agents. We evaluated the expressions of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK), an upstream regulator of ERK, and Raf kinase inhibitor protein (RKIP), and investigated correlations of these expressions with clinicopathological features and outcomes in gastric cancer.

Methods

Tumour samples were obtained from 105 patients with gastric adenocarcinomas who underwent radical gastrectomy. The expressions of phosphorylated ERK (p-ERK), phosphorylated MEK (p-MEK), and RKIP were analysed by immunohistochemical staining.

Results

Expression of RKIP, p-MEK, and p-ERK was found in 69 (66%), 54 (51%), and 64 (61%) of all tumours, respectively. RKIP expression negatively correlated with the depth of invasion (p < 0.001), lymph node involvement (p = 0.028), and Union for International Cancer Control (UICC) stage (p = 0.007). RKIP expression was associated with significantly longer relapse-free survival (RFS) (p = 0.0033), whereas p-MEK was not (p = 0.79). Patients with p-ERK expression had slightly, but not significantly shorter RFS than those without such expression (p = 0.054). Patients with positive p-ERK and negative RKIP expression had significantly shorter RFS than the other patients (p < 0.001). The combination of RKIP and p-ERK expression was an independent prognostic factor (hazard ratio, 2.4; 95% confidence interval, 1.3 - 4.6; p = 0.008).

Conclusions

Our results demonstrated that loss of RKIP was associated with tumour progression and poor survival. Negative RKIP expression combined with positive p-ERK expression was an independent predictor of poor outcomes in patients with gastric cancer.     

雌二醇对子宫内膜癌Ishikawa细胞MAPK通路的激活及对增殖的影响

目的 探讨雌激素是否能激活MAPK信号转导通路,以及对子宫内膜癌细胞增殖能力的影响。方法 培养子宫内膜癌Ishikawa细胞,按药物干预分为3组：雌二醇（E₂）组、U0126（MAPK激酶抑制剂）+E₂组、对照组。采用荧光定量PCR技术检测各组MEK1/2、ERK1/2 mRNA表达的变化;Western blot法检测各组p-MEK1/2、p-ERK1/2蛋白的活化程度;流式细胞仪检测各组的细胞周期比例;细胞集落形成实验检测各组细胞的增殖能力;体外穿膜实验比较各组细胞的迁移能力。结果 E2组MEK1/2、ERK1/2 mRNA表达增加（P=0.025, P=0.002）,U0126+E2组中,U0126能阻断E2诱导MEK1/2、ERK1/2 mRNA的表达上调（P=0.000, P=0.000）。E2组p-MEK1/2、p-ERK1/2蛋白活化水平升高（P=0.049, P=0.028);U0126+E2组中,U0126能阻断E2诱导的p-MEK1/2、p-ERK1/2蛋白活化（P=0.018, P=0.003）。E2组G₁期细胞比例显著低于对照组及U0126+E₂组（P=0.017）,集落形成率显著高于对照组及U0126+E₂组（P=0.009）,穿过微孔的细胞数显著多于对照组及U0126+E₂组（P=0.000）。结论 雌二醇通过激活MAPK通路,促进子宫内膜癌的发展,MEK抑制剂能阻断并抑制这一作用。     

培美曲塞和吉非替尼不同时序应用对人肺腺癌细胞的作用和机制

目的 探讨培美曲塞与吉非替尼不同时序应用对肺腺癌细胞A549和PC-9生长及凋亡的影响, 并阐述其可能机制。方法 MTT法检测各组细胞的增殖抑制情况,流式细胞仪检测各组细胞凋亡及细胞周期分布,Western印迹法检测对EGFR下游信号通路及TS酶蛋白水平表达的影响。结果 培美曲塞序贯吉非替尼、培美曲塞同步联合吉非替尼对PC-9和A549细胞增殖抑制率及凋亡率较单药组均提高（P<0.05）,培美曲塞可以提高EGFR、AKT 、ERK磷酸化水平,而吉非替尼表现为抑制作用, 同时吉非替尼降低TS酶表达。培美曲塞序贯吉非替尼,培美曲塞同步联合吉非替尼抑制EGFR、AKT 、ERK磷酸化水平较单药更强。吉非替尼主要将PC-9、A549细胞阻滞在G0/G1期;培美曲塞主要将细胞阻滞在S期。培美曲塞序贯吉非替尼、培美曲塞同步联合吉非替尼较其他组G2/M期细胞比例提高（P<0.05）。结论 培美曲赛序贯吉非替尼、培美曲赛同步联合吉非替尼在PC-9、A549细胞中均起到协同增效作用,且培美曲赛序贯吉非替尼协同作用更为显著,可能主要与培美曲赛诱导EGFR、AKT 、ERK磷酸化及吉非替尼降低TS酶作用有关。     

Insulin promotes proliferation,survival, and invasion in endometrial carcinoma by activating the MEK/ERK pathway

The involvement of insulin in endometrial carcinoma (EC) was investigated using radioimmunoassay, Western blot, immunoprecipitation, MTT, and Annexin V-FITC/PI assays in tissue samples and cultured cells. Serum levels of insulin, p-p52Shc, p-p46Shc, Shc·Grb2 complexes, p-MEK, p-ERK, and cyclin D1 were elevated in patients with EC. Expression of key proteins in the MEK/ERK pathway, including p-p52Shc, Shc·Grb2 complexes, p-MEK, p-ERK, and cyclin D1, was significantly higher in patients with advanced FIGO stage, high grade, and lymph-node metastasis and correlated positively with serum insulin concentration. Insulin promotes Ishikawa 3-H-12 cell proliferation, survival, and invasion, and these effects induced by insulin were significantly blocked by MEK inhibitor PD98059. Insulin thus promotes EC cell proliferation, survival, and invasion via the MEK/ERK pathway.     

Claudin-23在胰腺癌细胞解离中的表达和定位变化

目的:探讨claudin-23表达和定位变化与胰腺癌细胞解离的关系。方法:利用RT-PCR、Western blot及免疫细胞化学方法观察胰腺癌细胞解离过程中claudin-23 mRNA和蛋白表达及其定位变化。结果:claudin-23 mRNA及蛋白在解离型高转移株胰腺癌细胞PC-1.0中低表达,而在非解离型低转移株胰腺癌细胞PC-1中高表达,表达MEK1-shRNA的PC-1.0亚细胞克隆中claudin-23 mRNA及蛋白表达增加,而在表达MEK2-shRNA的PC-1.0亚细胞克隆中表达变化不明显,但claudin-23蛋白定位发生明显变化。此外,表达MEK2-shRNA的PC-1.0亚细胞克隆呈岛样细胞克隆方式生长。与此相反,培养液上清中添加细胞解离因子后,claudin-23 mRNA和蛋白表达明显减少。结论:Claudin-23表达和定位变化与胰腺癌细胞解离状态密切相关,可能的分子机制为通过MEK信号转导通路调节claudin-23的表达和定位变化,从而调控胰腺癌的细胞解离。     

PD98059抑制MAPK/ERK信号通路对胃癌细胞生物学功能的影响

目的：研究MAPK/ERK信号通路中关键信号分子MEK和ERK在胃癌SGC-7901细胞中的表达及PD98059抑制MAPK/ERK通路对胃癌细胞生物学功能的影响。方法：体外培养胃癌细胞株SGC-7901,不同浓度（0、25、50、100、200、300和400 mmol/L）PD98059处理24 h后CCK-8法检测细胞增殖率变化;再用0、25、50和100 μmol/L PD98059处理24 h后采用实时荧光定量PCR（qPCR）检测MEK和ERK mRNA的表达量;Western blot检测MEK和ERK蛋白的表达;流式细胞术检测细胞周期和凋亡变化。同时设正常胃黏膜上皮GES-1细胞为对照。结果：与正常胃黏膜上皮GES-1细胞相比,胃癌SGC-7901细胞中MEK和ERK mRNA的表达升高,差异具有统计学意义（P < 0.05）;p-MEK、p-ERK蛋白的表达亦显著升高,差异具有统计学意义（P < 0.05）。0~200 μmol/L PD98059处理SGC-7901细胞后,细胞增殖率随着抑制剂浓度的升高而降低（P < 0.05）。当PD98059浓度处于200~400 μmol/L时抑制作用逐渐趋于平稳。0~100 μmol/L PD98059作用后MEK、ERK mRNA的表达量低于对照组（P < 0.05）,随着PD98059浓度升高,ERK mRNA表达量逐渐降低（P < 0.05）。Western blot检测结果显示50和100 μmol/L PD98059作用后p-MEK1/2、p-ERK1/2蛋白表达降低（P < 0.05）。且抑制剂PD98059使胃癌SGC-7901细胞发生G0/G1期阻滞,可诱导细胞凋亡。结论：MAPK/ERK信号通路在胃癌细胞中激活,PD98059通过抑制MAPK/ERK信号通路的活性可影响胃癌细胞的生物学功能。     

Downmodulation of ERK protein kinase activity inhibits VEGF secretion by human myeloma cells and myeloma-induced angiogenesis.

The mitogen-activated protein (MAP) cascade leading to the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2) is critical for regulating myeloma cell growth; however, the relationship of ERK1/2 activity with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) production and the effects of its downmodulation in myeloma cells are not elucidated. We found that the treatment with MAP/ERK kinase 1 (MEK1) inhibitors PD98059 or PD184352 produced a reduction of phosphorylated ERK1/2 (p-ERK1/2) levels in myeloma cells of more than 80% and prevented the increase of p-ERK1/2 induced by interleukin-6 (IL-6). MEK1 inhibitors also induced a significant inhibition of myeloma cell proliferation and blunted the stimulatory effect induced by IL-6. A significant inhibition of basal VEGF secretion by myeloma cells as well as a suppression of the stimulatory effect of IL-6 on VEGF was observed by either PD98059 or PD184352. Moreover, we also found that the PI3K kinase inhibitors, but not p38 MAPK inhibitors, reduced VEGF secretion by myeloma cells and increase the inhibitory effect of MEK1 inhibitors. In an 'in vitro' model of angiogenesis, we found that MEK1 inhibitors impair vessel formation induced by myeloma cells and restored by VEGF treatment, suggesting that the downmodulation of ERK1/2 activity reduces myeloma-induced angiogenesis by inhibiting VEGF secretion.     

ErbB3 expression and dimerization with EGFR influence pancreatic cancer cell sensitivity to erlotinib

Abnormal expression and signaling of ErbB receptors has been implicated in multiple epithelial malignancies, including pancreatic cancer. Erlotinib, an epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR-TKI), has been recently approved for pancreatic cancer treatment, but there are no reliable predictors of patient response. Expression of additional ErbB receptors seems to influence tumor response to EGFR-targeted therapy. We analyzed the influence of ErbB3 expression on pancreatic cancer cell response to erlotinib treatment. Proliferation assays of five human pancreatic cancer cell lines were performed following treatment with erlotinib. Expression and phosphorylation profiles of ErbB receptors and downstream adaptor protein (Akt, ERK1/2, STAT3, mTOR) were evaluated following stimulation with EGF or neuregulin-beta. The formation of EGFR homodimers and EGFR-ErbB3 heterodimers, necessary to enable ErbB3 downstream signaling, was demonstrated by chemical cross-linking assays. The effects of RNA inhibition of ErbB3 on sensitivity to erlotinib treatment were evaluated in AsPC-1 pancreatic cancer cells. Erlotinib inhibited Akt phosphorylation and proliferation of all the ErbB3-expressing cell lines but did not affect mTOR activation. Cross-linking studies confirmed the presence of EGFR-ErbB3 heterodimers in pancreatic cancer cells. Only the ErbB3-deficient MIA PaCa-2 cells displayed persistent Akt activation and ongoing proliferation in spite of erlotinib treatment. siRNA-mediated inhibition of ErbB3 expression in AsPC-1 cells resulted in acquired resistance to erlotinib treatment. Pancreatic cancer cells which lack ErbB3 do not display activation of the ErbB3-PI3K-Akt cascade induced by EGFR/ErbB3 heterodimers and become less critically dependent on EGFR signaling and therefore resistant to erlotinib. Pancreatic cancer expression of ErbB3 may be useful for EGFR-targeted therapy patient selection.     

Potentiation of the effect of erlotinib by genistein in pancreatic cancer: the role of Akt and nuclear factor-kappaB

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a target of new therapies in most nonhematologic cancers. EGFR blockade alone may not be sufficient for the control of growth and invasion of human pancreas cancer because of the independent activation of Akt and nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB). The expression of EGFR, Akt, and NF-kappaB was determined in six human pancreatic cancer cell lines. Selected cells for specific expression were treated with erlotinib, genistein, gemcitabine, or the combination. Growth inhibition was evaluated using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay, and apoptosis was assayed by ELISA. EGFR, phosphorylated EGFR, phosphorylated Akt, and survivin expressions were determined by immunoblotting. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay was used to evaluate the DNA binding activity of NF-kappaB. Genistein significantly increased (P < 0.05) erlotinib-induced growth inhibition and apoptosis in BxPC-3, CAPAN-2, and AsPC-1 cells. In the BxPC-3 cell line, significant down-regulation of EGFR, phosphorylated Akt, NF-kappaB activation, and survivin was observed in the cells treated with the combination compared with the erlotinib-treated cells. In the HPAC and MIAPaCa cell line, no potentiation of the effects of erlotinib by genistein on cell growth or inhibition of the EGFR/Akt/NF-kappaB was observed. Genistein potentiated growth inhibition and apoptosis of the gemcitabine and erlotinib combination in COLO-357 cell line. Genistein potentiates the growth inhibition and apoptosis induced by erlotinib and gemcitabine in certain pancreatic cancer cells. Akt and NF-kappaB inhibition represents one of the mechanisms for the potentiation of erlotinib- and gemcitabine-induced cell death by genistein.     

Pharmacologic inhibition of RAF-->MEK-->ERK signaling elicits pancreatic cancer cell cycle arrest through induced expression of p27Kip1

Expression of mutationally activated RAS is a feature common to the vast majority of human pancreatic adenocarcinomas. RAS elicits its effects through numerous signaling pathways including the RAF-->mitogen-activated protein (MAP)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) kinase [MEK]-->ERK MAP kinase pathway. To assess the role of this pathway in regulating cell proliferation, we tested the effects of pharmacologic inhibition of MEK on human pancreatic cancer cell lines. In eight cell lines tested, MEK inhibition led to a cessation of cell proliferation accompanied by G0-G1 cell cycle arrest. Concomitant with cell cycle arrest, we observed induced expression of p27Kip1, inhibition of cyclin/cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (cdk2) activity, accumulation of hypophosphorylated pRb, and inhibition of E2F activity. Using both antisense and RNA interference techniques, we assessed the role of p27Kip1 in the observed effects of MEK inhibition on pancreatic cancer cell proliferation. Inhibition of p27Kip1 expression in Mia PaCa-2 cells restored the activity of cyclin/cdk2, phosphorylation of pRb, and E2F activity and partially relieved the effects of U0126 on pancreatic cancer cell cycle arrest. Consistent with the effects of p27Kip1 on cyclin/cdk2 activity, inhibition of CDK2 expression by RNA interference also led to G0-G1 cell cycle arrest. These data suggest that the expression of p27Kip1 is downstream of the RAF-->MEK-->ERK pathway and that the regulated expression of this protein plays an important role in promoting the proliferation of pancreatic cancer cells. Moreover, these data suggest that pharmacologic inhibition of the RAF-->MEK-->ERK signaling pathway alone might tend to have a cytostatic, as opposed to a cytotoxic, effect on pancreatic cancer cells.