Intensive care management of head injury patients without routine intracranial pressure monitoring

Background: Head injury contributes significantly to mortality and morbidity in India. Evaluation of the available trauma care facilities may help improve outcome. Aim: To evaluate the factors influencing the mortality of patients with head injury who had intensive care management and evolve strategies to improve outcome. Setting and Design: Retrospective study in a tertiary hospital where intracranial pressure monitoring (ICPM) is not routinely practiced. Materials and Methods: All patients with head injury managed in the intensive care unit in a two-year period were included. The factors evaluated were age, vital signs, Glasgow Coma scale score (GCS) at admission, pupillary light reflex (PR), oculocephalic reflex (OCR), hemodynamic stability, computerized tomography (CT) findings, diabetes mellitus, anemia, infections and abnormalities of serum sodium. Results: We analyzed 208 patients (202 without ICPM). In-hospital mortality was 64 (31%). Only 24 (11.5%) patients were admitted within one hour of injury, while one-third arrived after six hours. The clinical factors (at admission) that influenced mortality included age, GCS, PR, OCR and diastolic blood pressure (DBP). Effacement of the basal cisterns in the initial and repeat CT scans, hyperglycemia, hemodynamic instability and serum sodium imbalances were associated with higher mortality. The independent predictors of mortality by logistic regression were initial GCS, DBP, hemodynamic instability and effacement of cisterns on repeat CT. Conclusions: Mortality following head injury is high. Pre-hospital emergency medical services are disorganized. The key to reducing mortality within the limitations of our current trauma system is maintenance of DBP>70 mmHg and SBP> 90 mmHg from the time of first contact.     

Traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage in acute severe head injury

Traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage (TSAH) is a frequent occurrence resulting from acute severe head injury. Computerized tomography (CT) accurately identifies the region, extent and nature of TSAH following trauma. But, to our knowledge, there have been few series detailing the characteristics of TSAH in acute severe head injury. The purpose of this study is to describe the findings, nature and prognosis of TSAH. Over a six and a half year period between April 1977 and September 1983, 414 severely head injured patients were examined by CT within 24 hours of the injury in the Department of Neurological Surgery and Critical Care Medicine, Nippon Medical School. Among them, 97 (23.4%) patients showed the appearance of TSAH in the Sylvian fissures, tentorium cerebelli, cortical sulci, basal cisterns and interhemispheric fissures. Conscious state on admission was defined using the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) and clinical outcome was defined using Glasgow Outcome Scale. There were 77 men and 20 women, ranging from 4 months to 83 years in age (means 44.3 years). TSAH therefore appears to be seen in all age groups, but especially in middle age groups. The GCS on admission was 8 or less in all cases; the GCS was 8 in 10 cases, 7 in 7 cases, 6 in 15 cases, 5 in 16 cases, 4 in 23 cases, 3 in 26 cases. The lower GCS scores, the more frequently TSAH was identified, and 67% of the patients had a GCS of 6 or less.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Outcome prediction in severe head injury: analyses of clinical prognostic factors.

Retrospective analysis of 272 patients with severe head injury was performed. Patient age, Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score, pupillary abnormalities, impaired oculocephalic response, presence of subarachnoid haemorrhage, and multiplicity of parenchymal lesions on computerised tomography (CT) were examined. The CT findings were divided into 2 groups, diffuse brain injury (DBI) and mass lesion, according to the classification of the Traumatic Coma Data Bank. The DBI, basically, has no high or mixed density lesion more than 25 ml on CT, and was classified into 4 subgroups: DBI I includes injuries where there is no visible pathology; DBI II includes all injuries in which the cisterns are present with a midline shift of less than 5 mm; DBI III includes injuries with swelling where the cisterns are compressed or absent and the midline shift is less than 5 mm; DBI IV includes injuries with a midline shift of more than 5 mm. The mass lesions were categorised into 3 subgroups: epidural haematoma; acute subdural haematoma; and intracerebral haematoma. Outcomes were determined at 6 months following trauma using the Glasgow Outcome Scale. All DBI I patients recovered well. In the DBI II group, age, GCS score and detection of multiple parenchymal lesions on CT were significantly correlated with outcome. For the DBI III and IV groups, the only significant prognostic factor was the GCS score. In patients with a mass lesion, the GCS score was the only significant prognostic factor in the epidural haematoma group, but the GCS score and the presence of subarachnoid haemorrhage were predictive factors in the acute subdural haematoma group. Outcomes were unfavourable in the majority of patients with intracerebral haematoma. GCS score could predict outcome in all groups. The confidence of the outcome prediction ranged from 75.8 to 92.1%, depending on logistic regression analysis.     

影响外伤性蛛网膜下腔出血病人预后的因素分析

目的 探讨可影响外伤性蛛网膜下腔出血（tSAH）病人治疗结果的因素及其CT变化的特点。方法 回顾性分析了一组连续收治的入院时经头颅CT检查确诊为tSAH的闭合性颅脑损伤病人资料，记录其入院时和病情加重时的头颅CT情况、入院时GCS评分、以Fisher分级法对出血量进行分级情况、伤后6个月以GOS评分法评估的治疗结果，并对数据加以统计分析。结果 多因素Logisitc回归分析显示，初次CT扫描tSAH出血量Fisher分级（OR=50．7，P〈0．001）、入院时GCS评分（OR=2．86，P〈0．001）、初次CT扫描基底池tSAH（OR=0．35，P=0．030）与tSAH患者的不良结果存在显著相关。最初CT显示脑挫裂伤与入院后CT出现恶化（OR=2．92，P=-0．003）及入院后CT示显著恶化（OR=3．21，P〈0．001）有显著相关性。结论 tSAH病人的治疗结果与入院时GCS评分、出血量及脑挫裂伤的存在或范围有关，这些也是头颅CT出现显著恶化的相关因素，说明头颅CT显示出的恶化与治疗结果是有其内在联系。     

轻型颅脑损伤分型初探

目的：评价轻颅脑伤病人伤情及结局,提出对其进一步分型方法,方法：应用GCS评分,头AIS分级,早期放射学检查及GOS分级回顾性分析956例GCS13－15的的轻型颅脑伤,结果,全组有头部较严重解损伤（头AIS3－5分）者占25．52％轻型 伤病人的GCS评分愈高,其解剖损伤程度愈低,需神经外科处理率愈小,预后愈好,重新分组后A组672例均列需神经外科处理,且预后良好,B组284例中13．03％需神经外科处理,且中,重残及死亡率分别为11．27％,2．46％,0．70％,两组需神经外科处理率及预后均相差显著（P＜0．001）,结论：GCS评分及早期放射学检查对病人危险性判断有意义,因此可将GCS15分,无放射沈阳 性征者称为I型轻型颅脑伤,而将GCS13或14分,及GCS15分并有早期放射学征阳性者称为11型轻型颅脑伤,II型轻型颅脑伤刘经外科处理的可能性明显较高,而预后较差,需引起医生的重视。     

中重型颅脑损伤后进展性出血性损伤危险因素的Logistic回归分析

目的 探讨中重型颅脑损伤后进展性出血性损伤(PHI)的相关危险因素,为其早期诊治和有效预防提供依据.方法 选取湖南省长沙市中医医院神经外科自2007年8月至2009年2月收治的颅脑损伤患者262例(发生PHI 125例,未发生PHI 137例),多因素Logistic回归分析患者的年龄、性别、出血部位、出血类型、瞳孔情况、入院时收缩压、伤后至首次CT时间、GCS评分、受伤机制、首次CT和第2次CT的间隔时间、大剂量应用甘露醇、血小板计数(PLT)、凝血酶原时间(PT)、活化部分凝血酶原时间(APTT)对PHI发生的影响.结果 单因素分析显示年龄、出血类型、伤后至首次CT时间、GCS评分、PLT、PT、APTT对PHI发生的影响具有统计学意义(P＜0.05).多因素Logistic回归分析显示伤后至首次CT时间、GCS评分、PLT是PHI发生的独立危险因素,OR值分别为3.5448、3.0975、2.2361.结论 对于首次CT检查时间较早、GCS评分低、PLT较低的中重型颅脑损伤患者,要警惕PHI的发生,及时行正规的动态CT复查,提高PHI的诊断和救治成功率.     

Outcome prediction model for severe diffuse brain injuries: development and evaluation

BACKGROUND: Intensive care resources for the management of severe diffuse brain injury patients (SDBI) are limited. Their optimal use is possible only if we can predict at admission which patients are unlikely to improve. AIMS: To develop a simple and effective model to predict poor outcome in patients with SDBI in order to help guide initial therapy. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The prognostic factors and outcomes of 289 patients with severe diffuse brain injury (GCS 3-8) were analyzed retrospectively. The prognostic factors analyzed were age, mode of injury, GCS at admission, pupillary reaction, horizontal oculocephalic reflex, and CT scan findings. Outcome at 1 month was classified as unfavorable--death or persistent vegetative state, or favorable--improvement with or without some disability. A stepwise linear logistic regression analysis was used to identify the most important predictors of poor outcome. A prediction model (NIMHANS model-NM) was developed using these factors. NM and several currently available outcome prediction models were prospectively applied in a separate group of 26 patients with severe diffuse brain injury managed with a different protocol. RESULTS: The most important predictors of poor outcome were found to be the horizontal oculocephalic reflex, motor score of GCS, and midline shift on CT scan. NM was found to be more sensitive (75%) and specific (67%) than most other models in predicting unfavorable outcome. NM had high false pessimistic results (33%). CONCLUSION: Prediction models cannot be used to guide initial therapy.     

Traumatic subarachnoid haemorrhage: a clinicoradiological and TCD correlation.

Twenty five consecutive patients with CT proven pure traumatic subarachnoid haemorrhage (tSAH) were studied, prospectively over a 6 month period. They constituted 2% of all head injuries. Most of the patients (88%) had a mild or moderate head injury at the time of admission, with a mean glasgow comma scale (GCS) of 10.68. The CT scan findings were divided into 3 grades. Grade 1 - blood in hemispheric region only (n=4), grade 2 - blood in basal region only (n=11), grade 3 - blood in both hemispheric as well as basal region (n=10). Transcranial doppler ultrasound (TCD) velocities were recorded in all patients by insonating the middle cerebral artery, internal carotid artery and anterior cerebral artery on both sides. All patients were also subjected to digital substraction angiography (DSA). All patients with mild head injury had normal TCD velocity (<100 cm/sec), while TCD velocities of more than 150 cm/sec were seen only in one patient with severe head injury. Patients with severe head injury were found to have grade 3 tSAH on CT. No statistically significant correlation was found between the CT grade and TCD velocities. Angiographic vasospasm was found in 2 patients with severe head injury only. 90.2% of patients had good outcome at discharge.     

重型颅脑损伤患者早期头颅CT影像学特点分析

目的探讨重型颅脑损伤预后相关的早期头颅CT影像学特点。方法回顾性分析106例重型颅脑损伤患者伤后6h内的头颅CT表现,依据出院时格拉斯哥结果分级(GOS)标准分为预后良好组和预后不良组,分析预后相关的早期头颅CT影像学特点。结果单因素分析表明,2组轻-中度局灶性脑损伤和重度弥漫性脑损伤、环池-基底池受压或闭塞有显著性差异(P<0.05);多因素分析显示,重度弥漫性脑损伤(OR=0.108,P=0.018)是预后独立相关的头颅CT表现,硬膜外血肿(OR=3.743,P=0.020)、环池-基底池受压或闭塞(OR=0.106,P=0.000)是预后独立相关的头颅CT影像学特点。结论重型颅脑损伤早期头颅CT表现与预后关系密切,了解其特点有助于合理制定治疗方案和评估预后。     

3000 head injuries: a prospective study of patients admitted to Brisbane neurosurgical units

A prospective epidemiological study of 3095 patients with head injury admitted to Brisbane neurosurgical units is presented. Falls were the commonest cause of injury overall (42%) but traffic accidents were the leading cause of severe head injury Glasgow Coma Scale ([GCS] 8 or less) and had a higher mortality (5.6%). Outcome was closely related to GCS, presence or absence and type of skull fracture, computed tomography (CT) scan findings and age. Overall mortality was 4.4%. Mortality for mild head injury (GCS 13-15) was 0.4%, moderately severe head injury (GCS 9-12) 10.5% and severe head injury (GCS 3-8) 34.5%. The poor outcome in old patients who fall and sustain a mild head injury is highlighted. Low risk criteria are identified and recommendations regarding admission and management policies are made.     

The importance of traumatic subarachnoid haemorrhage

Post-traumatic cerebral vasospasm is being increasingly recognised as a possibly significant complication after head injury. To assess the relationship between post-traumatic subarachnoid haemorrhage (tSAH) and post-traumatic vasospasm, 63 patients with severe head injury (GCS 3-8) were studied. Forty-seven patients had cerebral contusion on the initial CT scan. In 25 of these (Group I) there were only contusions, while 22 (Group II) also had tSAH. All patients had daily measurements of blood flow velocity in the basal cerebral arteries using transcranial Doppler ultrasound (TCD). The incidence of vasospasm detected by TCD was significantly higher in Group II. Furthermore there were significantly fewer good outcomes (GOS 1 and 2) in this group. These results suggest that the presence of subarachnoid blood in patients with severe head injury is associated with a risk of vasospasm, and with poorer outcome.     

Hypofibrinogenemia in isolated traumatic brain injury in Indian patients

Coagulation abnormalities are common in patients with head injuries. However, the effect of brain injury on fibrinogen levels has not been well studied prospectively to assess coagulation abnormalities in patients with moderate and severe head injuries and correlate these abnormalities with the neurologic outcome. Consecutive patients with moderate (Glasgow Comma Scale (GCS),9-12) and severe (GCS≤8) head injuries were the subjects of this pilot study, All patients had coagulation parameters, including plasma fibrinogen levels measured. Clinical and computed tomography (CT) scan findings and immediate clinical outcome were analyzed. Of the 100 patients enrolled, only seven (7%) patients had hypofibrinogenemia (fibrinogen ≤200 mg/dL). The head injury was moderate in two patients and severe in five patients. Fibrinogen levels showed a progressively increasing trend in four patients (three with severe head injuries and one with moderate head injury). CT scan revealed subdural hematoma in five patients; extradural hematoma in one; and subarachnoid hemorrhage in another patient. Of the seven patients, two patients died during hospital. Large-scale prospective studies are needed to assess the fibrinogen level in patients with head injury and its impact on outcome.     

Comparative evaluation of MRS and SPECT in prognostication of patients with mild to moderate head injury

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) have only been individually studied in patients with head injury. This study aimed to comparatively assess both in patients with mild to moderate head injury. Patients with a Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score of 9–14 who underwent MRS and/or SPECT were evaluated in relation to various clinical factors and neurological outcome at 3 months. There were 56 SPECT (Tc99m-ethylcysteinate dimer [ECD]) studies and 41 single voxel proton MRS performed in 53 patients, with 41 patients having both. Of the 41 who underwent MRS, 13 had a lower N-acetyl-aspartate/creatine (NAA/Cr) ratio, 14 had a higher choline (Cho)/Cr ratio, 19 were normal, and nine had bilateral MRS abnormalities. Of the 56 who underwent SPECT, 22 and 19 had severe and moderate hypoperfusion, respectively. Among those in Traumatic Coma Data Bank CT scan category 1 and 2, 50% had MRS abnormalities, whereas 64% had SPECT hypoperfusion, suggesting greater incremental validity of SPECT over MRS. In univariate analyses, GCS, moderate/severe hypoperfusion and bilateral SPECT changes were found to have significant association with unfavorable outcome (odds ratio 13.2, 15.9, and 4.4, and p values <0.01, 0.01, and 0.05, respectively). Patients with lower NAA/Cr ratio in MRS had more unfavorable outcomes, however this was not significant. In multivariate analysis employing binary logistic regression, GCS and severe hypoperfusion on SPECT were noted to have significant association with unfavorable outcome, independent of age, CT scan category, and MRS abnormalities (p values = 0.02 and 0.04, respectively). To conclude, ECD-SPECT seems to have greater sensitivity, incremental validity and prognostic value than single voxel proton MRS in select patients with head injury, with only severe hypoperfusion in SPECT significantly associated with unfavorable outcome independent of other confounding factors.     

重型颅脑损伤标准去骨瓣减压术后30 d内死亡的危险因素分析

目的 探讨重型颅脑损伤标准去骨瓣减压术后30d内死亡的危险因素.方法 回顾性分析2016年9月至2019年9月采用标准去骨瓣减压术治疗的145例重型颅脑损伤的临床资料.采用多因素logistic回归分析检验术后30 d内死亡的危险因素.结果 145例中,术后30 d内死亡43例,存活102例.多因素logistic回归...     

The Westmead head injury project: Outcome prediction in acute subdural haematoma

A prospective two year study of a consecutive sample of patients with an acute subdural haematoma who were admitted to Westmead Hospital, New South Wales, Australia was undertaken. There were 103 patients with an acute subdural haematoma admitted in the period. Twenty-four of these scored 9 or greater on the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) and of these all made a functional recovery, i.e. Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS 1 or 2). The remaining 79 patients scored 8 or less on admission and of these 30% made a functional recovery. Of the 70% remaining, 4% were moderately or severely disabled (GOS 3 or 4) while 66% died (GOS 5). Age, hypoxia, hypotension, response to intracranial pressure control and two CT scan features, midline shift as measured from the septum pellucidum and cerebral oedema, were all significant in predicting outcome. Time from injury to treatment, initial pupil response, lucid interval and compression of brainstem cisterns on CT scans statistically failed to predict outcome. The data were analysed using logistic regression which showed age and midline shift to predict death or disability with an accuracy of 80% at twelve months after the injury (sensitivity 58%, specificity 89%).     

Evaluation of traumatic subarachnoid haemorrhage on computed tomography.

Traumatic subarachnoid haemorrhage (TSAH) is a computed tomography (CT) scan finding frequently found in the acute phase of brain injury. However, the clinical evaluation of TSAH is controversial. The subjects in the present series consisted of 46 patients in whom the initial CT scan within 6 h after injury revealed a high density area in the subarachnoid space. The subjects were divided into three types: type 1 n = 10) had massive haemorrhage in the basal cisterns; type II (n = 9) had localized haemorrhage in the basal cisterns; and type III (n = 27) had localized haemorrhage in the cortical sulci or Sylvian fissure. The clinical and neuroradiological findings as well as the outcome of these three types of TSAH are discussed. The results of our study showed that TSAH observed at an acute stage of head trauma was associated with a great variety of intracranial pathological changes. Type I cases had either good or poor outcome, and diffuse brain injury was predominant in patients with poor outcome. The outcome was generally good in type II and III cases.     

影响重型颅脑损伤患者大骨瓣减压术后预后的多因素分析

目的分析重型颅脑损伤(severe craniocerebral injury,sTBI)患者大骨瓣减压(decompressivecraniectomy,DC)术后的预后及相关因素。方法回顾分析121例DC术后患者的临床资料。出院1个月后,根据格拉斯哥预后评分(Glasgow outcome scale,GOS)分为预后不良组(n=72)和预后良好组(n=49),比较两组患者的年龄、性别、受伤至手术时间、入院时格拉斯哥昏迷评分(Glasgow coma scale,GCS)、瞳孔变化、术前中线移位、术前基底池形态、术前血糖等因素,Logistic多元回归分析影响预后的相关因素。结果单因素分析表明两组间受伤至手术时间、入院时GCS评分、瞳孔变化、术前中线移位、术前基地池形态和术前血糖差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);采用Logistic回归分析上述因素,影响预后的相关因素分别为入院时GCS评分、瞳孔变化、术前中线移位、术前基地池形态、受伤至手术时间和术前血糖。结论sTBI患者DC术后的预后与入院时GCS评分、术前中线移位、术前基地池形态、瞳孔变化、受伤至手术时间和术前血糖等因素有关。     

双额叶脑挫裂伤的治疗策略选择

目的探讨双额叶脑挫裂伤患者的临床治疗策略。方法回顾性分析山西医科大学第一医院近10年来收治的59例双额叶脑挫裂伤患者的临床资料,按其伤后水肿高峰期GCS评分将患者分为轻、中和重型,测量各患者水肿高峰期头颅CT中脑挫裂伤灶体积和双侧脑室前夹角,分析各组患者GCS评分与影像学结果的相关性。中、重型患者按其入院后是否行手术治疗,又分为手术治疗组和保守治疗组,比较两组患者在住院时间、并发症发生情况、早、远期预后和远期认知功能等情况。结果 59例双额叶脑挫裂伤患者中轻型20例,中型26例,重型13例,Pearson相关性分析显示各组患者GCS评分与影像学表现呈中度负相关;中、重型组中保守治疗21例,手术治疗18例,保守组仅1例(4. 76%)重残,并伴认知功能障碍;手术组3例(16. 67%)植物生存,7例(38. 89%)重残,12例(66. 67%)伴不同程度认知障碍;两组患者在早、远期预后及认知功能方面差异有统计学意义(P 0. 05),在并发症及住院时间无统计学差异(P 0. 05)。结论(1)双额叶脑挫裂伤患者的GCS评分与其影像学评价指标中度相关,当二者间不完全一致时,治疗策略选择应以GCS评分为准,兼顾影像学改变。(2)手术治疗组患者总体预后及认知功能差,所以严格把控双额叶脑挫裂伤患者的手术指征,对于保留患者的认知功能、减少不良预后具有重大意义。     

CT scan in severe diffuse head injury: physiological and clinical correlations.

CT scan findings, clinical features and intracranial pressure were studied in patients with severe diffuse head injury. Compression of the 3rd ventricle and basal cisterns closely correlated with an intracranial pressure greater than 20 mmHg, with clinical signs of midbrain dysfunctions and worse prognosis. These CT scan findings can indicate whether intracranial pressure monitoring is appropriate.     

The relationship between basal cisterns on CT and time-linked intracranial pressure in paediatric head injury

Purpose  

Although intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring is a cornerstone of care for severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), the indications for ICP monitoring in children are unclear. Often, decisions are based on head computed tomography (CT) scan characteristics. Arguably, the patency of the basal cisterns is the most commonly used of these signs. Although raised ICP is more likely with obliterated basal cisterns, the implications of open cisterns are less clear. We examined the association between the status of perimesencephalic cisterns and time-linked ICP values in paediatric severe TBI.