DNA的损伤与修复

细胞的生物信息储存在DNA中。在真核细胞中,绝大多数（98％）DNA与蛋白质结合形成染色质存在于细胞核内,一小部分存在于其他细胞器中,如线粒体内。DNA由鸟嘌呤、腺嘌呤、胸腺嘧啶、胞嘧啶、戊糖和磷酸组成,碱基不同的排列顺序编码了不同的生物信息。在细胞的生存过程中,DNA会遭到内源性和外源性的损伤（表1）,例如放射线和化学物质。正常细胞的DNA损伤是诱发疾病的原     

DNA damage and breast cancer

Cancer is intimately related to the accumulation of DNA damage, and repair failures (including mutation prone repair and hyperactive repair systems). This article relates current clinical categories for breast cancer and their common DNA damage repair defects. Information is included on the potential for accumulation of DNA damage in the breast tissue of a woman during her lifetime and the role of DNA damage in breast cancer development. We then cover endogenous and exogenous sources of DNA damage, types of DNA damage repair and basic signal transduction pathways for three gene products involved in the DNA damage response system; namely BRCA1, BRIT1 and PARP-1. These genes are often considered tumor suppressors because of their roles in DNA damage response and some are under clinical investigation as likely sources for effective new drugs to treat breast cancers. Finally we discuss some of the problems of DNA damage repair systems in cancer and the conundrum of hyper-active repair systems which can introduce mutations and confer a survival advantage to certain types of cancer cells.     

DNA损伤修复变异指导铂类药物治疗三阴性乳腺癌的应用前景

三阴性乳腺癌(TNBC)极易复发和远处转移, 是预后最差的乳腺癌亚型, 其主要的治疗手段为化疗, 但目前仍缺乏有效的辅助化疗方案。化疗效果不理想成为阻碍TNBC疗效提高的瓶颈问题。铂类药物作用于细胞DNA, 通过损伤肿瘤细胞DNA, 达到杀灭肿瘤的作用, 对携带DNA损伤修复缺陷的肿瘤细胞有更强的杀伤作用, 成为提高TNBC疗效的重要切入点。寻找能够预测铂类药物在TNBC治疗疗效的生物标志物始终为热点问题之一。DNA损伤修复(DDR)通路包含大量相关基因, DDR通路功能缺失可能与铂类药物疗效相关, 其有望成为预测铂类药物治疗乳腺癌疗效的生物标志物。     

Predictive significance of DNA damage and repair biomarkers in triple-negative breast cancer patients treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy: An exploratory analysis

Response of cancer cells to chemotherapy-induced DNA damage is regulated by the ATM-Chk2 and ATR-Chk1 pathways. We investigated the association between phosphorylated H2AX (γ-H2AX), a marker of DNA double-strand breaks that trigger the ATM-Chk2 cascade, and phosphorylated Chk1 (pChk1), with pathological complete response (pCR) in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) patients treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy. γ-H2AX and pChk1 were retrospectively assessed by immunohistochemistry in a series of pretreatment biopsies related to 66 patients. In fifty-three tumors hormone receptor status was negative in both the diagnostic biopsies and residual cancers, whereas in 13 cases there was a slight hormone receptor expression that changed after chemotherapy. Internal validation was carried out. In the entire cohort elevated levels of γ-H2AX, but not pChk1, were associated with reduced pCR rate (p = 0.009). The association tested significant in both uni- and multivariate logistic regression models (OR 4.51, 95% CI: 1.39–14.66, p = 0.012, and OR 5.07, 95% CI: 1.28–20.09, p = 0.021, respectively). Internal validation supported the predictive value of the model. The predictive ability of γ-H2AX was further confirmed in the multivariate model after exclusion of tumors that underwent changes in hormone receptor status during chemotherapy (OR 7.07, 95% CI: 1.39–36.02, p = 0.018). Finally, in residual diseases a significant decrease of γ-H2AX levels was observed (p < 0.001). Overall, γ-H2AX showed ability to predict pCR in TNBC and deserves larger, prospective studies.     

Modes of action of the DNA methyltransferase inhibitors azacytidine and decitabine

The cytosine analogues 5-azacytosine (azacytidine) and 2'-deoxy-5-azacytidine (decitabine) are the currently most advanced drugs for epigenetic cancer therapies. These compounds function as DNA methyltransferase inhibitors and have shown substantial potency in reactivating epigenetically silenced tumor suppressor genes in vitro. However, it has been difficult to define the mode of action of these drugs in patients and it appears that clinical responses are influenced both by epigenetic alterations and by apoptosis induction. To maximize the clinical efficacy of azacytidine and decitabine it will be important to understand the molecular changes induced by these drugs. In this review, we examine the pharmacological properties of azanucleosides and their interactions with various cellular pathways. Because azacytidine and decitabine are prodrugs, an understanding of the cellular mechanisms mediating transmembrane transport and metabolic activation will be critically important for optimizing patient responses. We also discuss the mechanism of DNA methyltransferase inhibition and emphasize the need for the identification of predictive biomarkers for the further advancement of epigenetic therapies.     

BRCA1基因相关的DNA修复通路异常与三阴乳腺癌化疗药物选择的关系

三阴乳腺痛以雌激素受体(estrogen receptor,ER)、孕激素受体(progestogen receptor,PR)以及Her-2阴性为特征,临床表现为组织分化差,术后易出现局部复发和远处转移,而且脏器比骨骼更容易发生转移.因对内分泌治疗和以Her-2为靶向分子的治疗无效,化疗成为治疗方案中的主体.与其他类型乳腺癌比较,三阴乳腺癌患者与乳腺基底细胞样癌和乳癌基因1(BRCA1)相关性乳腺癌在表型和分子生物学水平方面具有很多共性.不同个体DNA损伤修复能力的差异和乳腺癌的发病密切相关.BRCA1以及相关的DNA修复通路中的不同基因,如BRCA2、ATM、RAD51和CHEK2对维护基因组稳定性方面有重要作用.因此,三阴乳腺痛患者BRCA1相关的DNA修复通路异常而导致DNA修复能力异常,影响了其对化疗药物的敏感性,进而可能促进了高转移特性的形成.导致三阴乳腺癌重要脏器转移高发的原因,是肿瘤本身的转移相关基因异常的内因所致,还是对所接受的治疗耐药而使肿瘤细胞处于逃逸状态而引起,目前尚不明确.因此本文对BRCA1相关的DNA修复通路异常与三阴乳腺癌高转移之间的关系进行综述.     

Differentiation of the mammary gland and susceptibility to carcinogenesis

Summary It has been demonstrated that in humans certain factors such as early menarche, late pregnancy, and nulliparity are associated with a higher risk of developing breast cancer, while early pregnancy acts as a protective factor. Induction of mammary cancer in rats by administration of the chemical carcinogen 7, 12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene reveals that the same factors influencing human breast cancer risk also affect the susceptibility of the rat mammary gland to the chemical carcinogen. Nulliparous rats and rats undergoing pregnancy interruption are more susceptible to developing carcinomas. This fact has been attributed to the incomplete differentiation of the gland at the time of carcinogen administration. Parous rats are resistant to the carcinogenic effect of DMBA, which is explained by the complete development of the gland attained during pregnancy and lactation. This development is manifested by the differentiation of terminal end buds into secretory units, which have a smaller proliferative compartment; the epithelial cells of these secretory units have a longer cell cycle, less avidity for binding DMBA, and possess a more efficient DNA excision repair capacity.     

CPNE1 predicts poor prognosis and promotes tumorigenesis and radioresistance via the AKT singling pathway in triple-negative breast cancer

Elevated expression of Copine 1 (CPNE1) has been observed in multiple cancers; however, the underlying mechanisms by which it affects cancer cells are unclear. We aimed to study the effect of CPNE1 on the tumorigenesis and radioresistance of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction was used to detect the expression of CPNE1 in TNBC tissues and cell lines. Western blot, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence were used to investigate the levels of CPNE1, p-AKT, AKT, cleaved caspase-3, cleaved PARP1, and γ-H2AX. Cell viability and apoptosis were measured by CCK-8 and flow cytometry, respectively. CPNE1 was overexpressed in TNBC tissues and cell lines and was associated with tumor size, distant metastases, and survival rates of patients with TNBC. Moreover, function study shows that CPNE1 promoted cell viability and inhibited cell apoptosis in vitro and inhibited the radiosensitivity of TNBC. Importantly, inactivation of AKT signaling inhibited the tumorigenesis and radioresistance mediated by CPNE1 in TNBC cells. In vivo xenograft study also shows that CPNE1 knockdown inhibited tumor growth and promoted cell apoptosis. Overall, our findings suggest that CPNE1 promotes tumorigenesis and radioresistance in TNBC by regulating AKT activation and targeted CPNE1 expression may be a strategy to sensitize TNBC cells toward radiation therapy.     

Investigation of systemic folate status, impact of alcohol intake and levels of DNA damage in mononuclear cells of breast cancer patients

Folate is required for DNA synthesis, repair and methylation. Low folate status has been implicated in carcinogenesis, possibly as a result of higher rate of genetic damage. The aim of this study is to compare folate status and levels of DNA damage between breast cancer and benign breast disease control patients. Fasting blood samples from 64 histologically confirmed untreated breast cancer patients (mean age 57 years) and 30 benign breast disease control patients (mean age 51 years) were obtained. Red cell folate (RCF) and plasma homocysteine were measured. Mononuclear cells (MNC) were isolated for genetic damage analysis using the basic alkaline comet assay. Results are expressed as tail moment. Data were log transformed as appropriate before analysis for normalisation purposes. The geometric mean (95% confidence interval) of RCF (ng ml(-1)) in breast cancer patients was 339.07 (333.3-404.6) vs 379.5 (335.8-505.2) in control patients (P = 0.24). Corresponding plasma homocysteine concentrations (micromol l(-1)) were 11.9 (10.6-16.4) vs 10.1 (9.3-11.9) (P = 0.073), respectively. The mean tail moment (s.d.) of DNA damage in MNC of breast cancer patients detected by the basic comet assay was 1.4 (0.66) vs -0.17 (0.79) in controls (P < 0.0001, t-test), the modified comet assay 'endonuclease III (Endo III)' was 1.7 (0.70) vs 0.86 (0.81) (P < 0.0001, t-test), and the modified comet assay 'formamidopyrimidine glycosylase (FPG)' was 1.6 (0.62) vs 0.99 (0.94) (P < 0.0001, t-test). There was a significant negative correlation between RCF levels and DNA damage detected by modified comet assay 'FPG' (Pearson Correlation Coefficient r2 = -0.26, P = 0.02) and DNA damage was found to be significantly higher in MNC of breast cancer patients compared to benign breast disease control patients. Breast cancer patients tended to have lower RCF levels and higher levels of plasma homocysteine, but these differences were not significant. The study provides preliminary evidence that reduced folate status may be implicated in the aetiology of breast cancer perhaps by increasing the in vivo level of genetic instability.     

DNA repair genes PAXIP1 and TP53BP1 expression is associated with breast cancer prognosis

Despite remarkable advances in diagnosis, prognosis and treatment, advanced or recurrent breast tumors have limited therapeutic approaches. Many treatment strategies try to explore the limitations of DNA damage response (DDR) in tumor cells to selectively eliminate them. BRCT (BRCA1 C-terminal) domains are present in a superfamily of proteins involved in cell cycle checkpoints and the DDR. Tandem BRCT domains (tBRCT) represent a distinct class of these domains. We investigated the expression profile of 7 tBRCT genes (BARD1, BRCA1, LIG4, ECT2, MDC1, PAXIP1/PTIP and TP53BP1) in breast cancer specimens and observed a high correlation between PAXIP1 and TP53BP1 gene expression in tumor samples. Tumors with worse prognosis (tumor grade 3 and triple negative) showed reduced expression of tBRCT genes, notably, PAXIP1 and TP53BP1. Survival analyses data indicated that tumor status of both genes may impact prognosis. PAXIP1 and 53BP1 protein levels followed gene expression results, i.e., are intrinsically correlated, and also reduced in more advanced tumors. Evaluation of both genes in triple negative breast tumor samples which were characterized for their BRCA1 status showed that PAXIP1 is overexpressed in BRCA1 mutant tumors. Taken together our findings indicate that PAXIP1 status correlates with breast cancer staging, in a manner similar to what has been characterized for TP53BP1.     

hOGG1基因低表达对DNA氧化损伤及修复的影响初探

背景与目的:初步探讨采用核酶技术获得的hOGG1基因低表达的细胞对氧化剂诱导的DNA氧化损伤与修复作用的影响。材料与方法:以A549细胞和通过稳定转染hOGG1核酶而获得的hOGG1低表达的A549_R细胞为研究对象,分别以重铬酸钾和过氧化氢为受试物,比较两种细胞DNA损伤与修复的差异。彗星试验检测不同浓度受试物作用下两种细胞的彗星细胞率和DNA迁移长度;改良彗星试验比较两种细胞在去除受试物后孵育0、30、60、120和180min时的修复情况。结果:重铬酸钾和过氧化氢对A549_R细胞的DNA损伤效应敏感,在一些浓度下其彗星细胞率和DNA迁移长度明显高于A549细胞(P<0.05);A549_R细胞的DNA修复能力显著低于A549细胞(P<0.05)。结论:hOGG1基因的低表达可以增加细胞对氧化剂诱导的DNA损伤的敏感性,降低细胞DNA的修复能力。     

PARP and CHK inhibitors interact to cause DNA damage and cell death in mammary carcinoma cells

The present studies examined viability and DNA damage levels in mammary carcinoma cells following PARP1 and CHK1 inhibitor drug combination exposure. PARP1 inhibitors [AZD2281 ; ABT888 ; NU1025 ; {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"AG014699","term_id":"3649917","term_text":"AG014699"}}AG014699] interacted with CHK1 inhibitors [UCN-01 ; AZD7762 ; LY2603618] to kill mammary carcinoma cells. PARP1 and CHK1 inhibitors interacted to increase both single strand and double strand DNA breaks that correlated with increased γH2AX phosphorylation. Treatment of cells with CHK1 inhibitors increased the phosphorylation of CHK1 and ERK1/2. Knock down of ATM suppressed the drug-induced increases in CHK1 and ERK1/2 phosphorylation and enhanced tumor cell killing by PARP1 and CHK1 inhibitors. Expression of dominant negative MEK1 enhanced drug-induced DNA damage whereas expression of activated MEK1 suppressed both the DNA damage response and tumor cell killing. Collectively our data demonstrate that PARP1 and CHK1 inhibitors interact to kill mammary carcinoma cells and that increased DNA damage is a surrogate marker for the response of cells to this drug combination.     

Wilms’ tumor gene WT1 promotes homologous recombination‐mediated DNA damage repair

The Wilms’ tumor gene WT1 is overexpressed in leukemia and various types of solid tumors and plays an oncogenic role in these malignancies. Alternative splicing at two sites yields four major isoforms, 17AA(+)KTS(+), 17AA(+)KTS(?), 17AA(?)KTS(+), and 17AA(?)KTS(?), and all the isoforms are expressed in the malignancies. However, among the four isoforms, function of WT1[17AA(?)KTS(+)] isoform still remains undetermined. In the present study, we showed that forced expression of WT1[17AA(?)KTS(+)] isoform significantly inhibited apoptosis by DNA‐damaging agents such as Doxorubicin, Mitomycin, Camptothesisn, and Bleomycin in immortalized fibroblast MRC5SV and cervical cancer HeLa cells. Knockdown of Rad51, an essential factor for homologous recombination (HR)‐mediated DNA repair canceled the resistance to Doxorubicin induced by WT1[17AA(?)KTS(+)] isoform. GFP recombination assay showed that WT1[17AA(?)KTS(+)] isoform alone promoted HR, but that three other WT1 isoforms did not. WT1[17AA(?)KTS(+)] isoform significantly upregulated the expression of HR genes, XRCC2, Rad51D, and Rad54. Knockdown of XRCC2, Rad51D, and Rad54 inhibited the HR activity and canceled resistance to Doxorubicin in MRC5SV cells with forced expression of WT1[17AA(?)KTS(+)] isoform. Furthermore, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay showed the binding of WT1[17AA(?)KTS(+)] isoform protein to promoters of XRCC2 and Rad51D. Immunohistochemical study showed that Rad54 and XRCC2 proteins were highly expressed in the majority of non‐small‐cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and gastric cancer, and that expression of these two proteins was significantly correlated with that of WT1 protein in NSCLCs. Our results presented here showed that WT1[17AA(?)KTS(+)] isoform had a function to promote HR‐mediated DNA repair. © 2014 The Authors. Molecular Carcinogenesis published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

     

Association of the SUV39H1 histone methyltransferase with the DNA methyltransferase 1 at mRNA expression level in primary colorectal cancer

This study was aimed at investigating the involvement of the SUV39H1 histone methyltransferase on the epigenetic change of euchromatic promoter in colorectal cancer. We retrospectively analyzed the mRNA levels of SUV39H1 and the promoter methylation of the p14(ARF), p16(INK4a) and HLTF genes as well as the mRNA levels of DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) in fresh frozen tissues from 219 colorectal cancer patients. The mRNA levels of the SUV39H1 and DNMT1 were assessed via quantitative real-time PCR and the methylation profiles of the CpG islands were determined using methylation-specific PCR. The mRNA levels of SUV39H1 and DNMT1 were elevated in 25% and 42% of 219 colorectal cancers, respectively. The hypermethylation of the p14(ARF), p16(INK4a) and HLTF genes occurred in 36%, 51% and 34% of the patients. The elevated mRNA levels of SUV39H1 were not associated with the hypermethylation of the 3 genes. However, the mRNA levels of DNMT1 were significantly different between patients with elevated mRNA levels of SUV39H1 and those without (1.62 +/- 0.84, 0.91 +/- 0.81, respectively; p = 0.007). Patients with elevated mRNA levels of SUV39H1 showed a higher prevalence of DNMT1 elevation than those without (61 vs. 35%, p = 0.0008). Patients with an elevated mRNA level of SUV39H1 had a 2.71 (95% CI = 1.09-4.48, p = 0.002) times greater risk of an elevated mRNA level of DNMT1, after controlling for age and gender. In conclusion, the present study suggests that SUV39H1 is significantly associated with DNMT1, but not with euchromatic promoter methylation in colorectal cancer.     

Oxidative DNA damage in gastric cancer: CagA status and OGG1 gene polymorphism

Oxidative DNA damage is thought to play an important part in the pathogenesis of H. pylori-induced mucosal damage. 8-OHdG is a sensitive marker of DNA oxidation and is repaired by a polymorphic glycosylase (OGG1) more effectively than by OGG1-Cys(326). The aims of this study were to ascertain the respective roles of H. pylori, cagA status and OGG1 polymorphism in determining 8-OHdG levels in benign and premalignant stomach diseases and in gastric cancer (GC). The study involved 50 GC patients (for whom both neoplastic tissue and surrounding mucosa were available), 35 with intestinal metaplasia and atrophy (IMA) and 43 controls. H. pylori and cagA status were determined by histology and polymerase chain reaction for urease and cagA. 8-OHdG was assayed using HPLC with an electrochemical detector (HPLC-ED). The OGG1 1245C-->G transversion was identified using RFLP analyses. 8-OHdG levels were significantly higher in GC, with no differences in relation to H. pylori or cagA status. OGG1 polymorphism was documented in 34% of GC (15 Ser/Cys, 2 Cys/Cys). OGG1 1245C-->G polymorphism was detected in 54% of IMA patients, but only 16% of controls (p = 0.0004) and coincided with significantly higher 8-OHdG levels. In the multivariate analysis, 8-OHdG levels were predicted by histotype and OGG1 status. OGG1 1245C-->G polymorphism was common in both GC and IMA, but very rare in controls, and correlated more closely with 8-OHdG levels than do H. pylori infection or cagA status.