JPN Guidelines for the management of acute pancreatitis: surgical management

Acute pancreatitis represents a spectrum of disease ranging from a mild, self-limited course to a rapidly progressive, severe illness. The mortality rate of severe acute pancreatitis exceeds 20%, and some patients diagnosed as mild to moderate acute pancreatitis at the onset of the disease may progress to a severe, life-threatening illness within 2–3 days. The Japanese (JPN) guidelines were designed to provide recommendations regarding the management of acute pancreatitis in patients having a diversity of clinical characteristics. This article sets forth the JPN guidelines for the surgical management of acute pancreatitis, excluding gallstone pancreatitis, by incorporating the latest evidence for the surgical management of severe pancreatitis in the Japanese-language version of the evidence-based Guidelines for the Management of Acute Pancreatitis published in 2003. Ten guidelines are proposed: (1) computed tomography-guided or ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration for bacteriology should be performed in patients suspected of having infected pancreatic necrosis; (2) infected pancreatic necrosis accompanied by signs of sepsis is an indication for surgical intervention; (3) patients with sterile pancreatic necrosis should be managed conservatively, and surgical intervention should be performed only in selected cases, such as those with persistent organ complications or severe clinical deterioration despite maximum intensive care; (4) early surgical intervention is not recommended for necrotizing pancreatitis; (5) necrosectomy is recommended as the surgical procedure for infected pancreatic necrosis; (6) simple drainage should be avoided after necrosectomy, and either continuous closed lavage or open drainage should be performed; (7) surgical or percutaneous drainage should be performed for pancreatic abscess; (8) pancreatic abscesses for which clinical findings are not improved by percutaneous drainage should be subjected to surgical drainage immediately; (9) pancreatic pseudocysts that produce symptoms and complications or the diameter of which increases should be drained percutaneously or endoscopically; and (10) pancreatic pseudocysts that do not tend to improve in response to percutaneous drainage or endoscopic drainage should be managed surgically.     

Endoscopic management of pancreatic pseudocysts

This article reviews the history of and the authors' experience with endoscopic management of pancreatic pseudocysts. Discussion includes pseudocyst enterostomy and results, the transpapillary method, complications, endoscopic versus surgical and percutaneous therapy, and drainage of infected pseudocysts and pancreatic necrosis.     

Operative and nonoperative management of pancreatic pseudocysts

The management of pancreatic pseudocysts has changed greatly over the last decade. As laparoscopic and endoscopic techniques continue to evolve, their use in the treatment of pseudocysts has gained acceptance, whereas the role of percutaneous drainage has become more limited. The literature on laparoscopic, endoscopic, and percutaneous management of pancreatic pseudocyst is reviewed here and, based on these data, a treatment algorithm is suggested.     

腹膜后入路经皮肾镜下感染性胰腺坏死的治疗

目的 探索采用腹膜后入路经皮肾镜治疗感染性胰腺坏死的方法并评价其疗效.方法 2008年6月至2009年8月采用经皮肾镜治疗感染性胰腺坏死6例,均先行腹膜后途径PCD治疗5～36 d,进一步行经PCD窦道的经皮肾镜坏死清除、引流治疗.结果 3例病人接受1次肾镜治疗,2例接受2次治疗,1例接受3次治疗.无手术并发症,无手术病死.1例半年后形成假性囊肿.结论 病例选择合适情况下经腹膜后途径经皮肾镜治疗感染性胰腺坏死的方法简单、创伤小、疗效较好,值得进一步深入探索.     

经胃壁内镜胰腺假性囊肿感染清创术

目的探讨经胃壁内镜清创术（NOTES技术）治疗胰腺假性囊肿感染的可行性、安全性和有效性。方法患者男性,45岁,主因腹胀1个月于2010年7月16日入院,被诊断为胰腺假性囊肿,大小约15×20 cm。在内镜超声引导下,常规经胃壁在囊肿内放入2枚双猪尾型塑料支架。术后第7天囊肿感染,经多次调整支架位置、在脓肿内增加2根支架并植入鼻胰冲洗管、留置空肠三腔营养管等处理,感染未得到根本控制。遂于2010年8月30日至9月19日间行3次胰腺假性囊肿感染清创术,即在导丝引导下,用球囊扩张胃壁切口直径至1.5 cm,将内镜送入脓腔内,用0.9%氯化钠溶液冲洗脓腔,取石网篮取出块状坏死物,术后在脓腔内放置支架和鼻胰冲洗管。结果胰腺假性囊肿支架植入后发生感染,在常规胃镜治疗无效的情况下,经胃壁行3次脓肿清创术后,患者体温和血象逐渐恢复正常。先后拔除鼻胰冲洗管、空肠三腔营养管和全部支架,患者于2010年10月25日痊愈出院。结论经胃壁胰腺假性囊肿感染清创术是安全、有效和可行的,但还有待更多研究证实。     

A technique for laparoscopic-assisted percutaneous drainage of infected pancreatic necrosis and pancreatic abscess

BACKGROUND: Percutaneous drainage has been shown to be an acceptable method for treating both pancreatic abscesses and infected pancreatic necrosis. However, percutaneous techniques have certain shortcomings, including the time and labor required and failure of the catheters to adequately drain the particulate debris. Growing experience around the world indicates that there is a role for retroperitoneal laparoscopy as a means of facilitating the percutaneous drainage of infected pancreatic fluid collections and avoiding a laparotomy. Our technique is discussed in this paper. METHODS: Once infection is documented in a pancreatic fluid collection by fine-needle aspiration, one or more percutaneous drains are placed into the fluid collection(s). A computed tomography (CT) scan is repeated. If further drainage is indicated, retroperitoneoscopic debridement is performed. Using a combination of the percutaneous drain(s) and the post-drain CT scan, ports are placed and retroperitoneoscopic debridement of the necrosectum is performed under direct visualization. Prior to completion of the operation, a postoperative lavage system is created. RESULTS: Six patients with infected pancreatic necrosis have been treated with this technique. Prior to commencement of our laparoscopic protocol, all six patients would have required open necrosectomy. Four of the six patients were managed with retroperitoneoscopic debridement and catheter drainage alone. Complications included a colocutaneous fistula and a small flank hernia. There were no bleeding complications and no deaths. CONCLUSION: Although open necrosectomy remains the standard of care for the treatment of infected pancreatic necrosis and pancreatic abscess, there is growing evidence that laparoscopic retroperitoneal debridement is feasible.     

Percutaneous catheter drainage of infected pancreatic and peripancreatic fluid collections

Operative drainage is the cornerstone of therapy for pancreatic abscess. Recently it has been suggested that successful percutaneous catheter drainage of infected pancreatic and peripancreatic fluid collections may serve as definitive therapy. We undertook therapeutic, computed tomography-directed percutaneous drainage in a selected group of 29 patients with infected pancreatic and peripancreatic fluid collections. Twenty-three patients (79%) were successfully treated with percutaneous drainage. Of six patients (21%) representing failures of percutaneous drainage, four died and two recovered after operative drainage. The four patients who died had a mean APACHE (acute physiology and chronic health evaluation) II score of 23 and five of Ranson's prognostic signs. Ranson's signs and APACHE II scores were predictive of success and mortality. We conclude that in selected patients, infected pancreatic and peripancreatic fluid collections can be treated definitively with therapeutic percutaneous catheter drainage. Based on this experience, recommendations regarding patient selection are included.     

Failure of percutaneous drainage in children with traumatic pancreatic pseudocysts

Recent reports have documented the successful use of percutaneous drainage (PD) in the management of traumatic pancreatic pseudocysts in children. This study presents four cases of pancreatic pseudocyst in which percutaneous catheter drainage was performed. In one instance, no operative therapy was required. However, in the other three cases PD failed to resolve the problem and distal pancreatectomy with splenic salvage was performed when contrast studies (endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography or catheter injection) demonstrated disruption of the main pancreatic duct. This report suggests that children with pancreatic pseudocysts unresponsive to PD require prompt investigation of ductal anatomy to rule out transection or other major injury.     

Medical education in China: Historical background,present status,and further development

Sixty-five abscesses, including 6 infected biliary systems and 15 sterile fluid collections, were treated by percutaneous catheter drainage in 77 febrile patients who were evaluated by computerized tomograhy or ultrasonography for intraabdominal infection. Percutaneous catheter drainage and systemic antibiotic administration without surgery provided satisfactory control of infection in 52 of 65 abscesses (80 percent). Catheter drainage followed by surgical exploration for abscess control was performed in an additional 5 of the 65 abscesses (7 percent). Nine deaths (14 percent) occurred in the abscess group of 64 patients. In 15 patients, aspirations, Gram stain, and culture of the abnormal fluid collection revealed sterile fluid. Drainage with a single catheter allowed complete resolution in 14 of 15 sterile collections. Surgery was performed electively in one patient with a fistula from a pancreatic pseudocyst in the small bowel. No deaths occurred in the noninfected group of 15 patients, 2 of whom underwent drainage of coexisting abscesses.     

Endoscopic pancreatic duct drainage and stenting for acute pancreatitis and pancreatic cyst and abscess

Background/Purpose Endoscopic drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts using transpapillary and transmural approaches has been reported. In this study, endoscopic nasopancreatic drainage (ENPD) and pancreatic stenting were performed in patients with pseudocyst and abscess associated with acute pancreatitis, and the usefulness and problems of the procedures were investigated. Methods After endoscopic retrograde pancreatography was done, ENPD and/or pancreatic stenting were performed in 13 patients with pancreatitis and pseudocyst or abscess that communicated with the main pancreatic duct. Results ENPD was performed in seven patients, and was effective in all five patients with cysts: the cysts disappeared or shrank. However, the condition in the two patients with abscess was unchanged, and percutaneous drainage was performed. Stenting was carried out in six patients, and the cyst disappeared or pancreatitis was improved in all six. The stent was removed from two patients, but no recurrence has been noted so far. Conclusions ENPD and stenting are effective therapeutic choices for acute and chronic pancreatitis and pseudocysts, and they are superior to percutaneous drainage to avoid pancreatic fistula, but they may not be effective for pancreatic abscess. Selection of therapeutic methods corresponding to individual cases is important.     

Necrotizing pancreatitis: Indications for surgery and surgical techniques

The term, “acute pancreatitis”, covers in terms of clinical, pathological, biochemical and bacteriological data, different entities in regard to the natural course of the disease. Interstitial edematous pancreatitis and necrotizing pancreatitis are the most frequent clinical manifestations; pancreatic abscess and postacute pseudocyst are late complications, mostly of necrotizing pancreatitis, developing after 3–5 weeks. The first choice of treatment is non-surgical management, even in patients with a severe complicated course of the disease. Patients who develop surgical acute abdomen, clinical sepsis syndrome, shock syndrome, or a severe type of mechanical or adynamic ileus must be treated surgically. Patients who do not respond to maximum intensive care measures for pulmonary, renal, cardiocirculatory, and metabolic dysfunction are candidates for surgical treatment, despite the possibility of sterile necrosis causing systemic complications. Surgical treatment is indicated in patients with infected necrosis, debridement and continuous closed lavage or open packing with re-operation being the most accepted treatment protoclos. When necrosectomy/debridement plus closed postoperative lavage was employed as a standard surgical treatment, hospital mortality was less than 20% in patients with infected necrosis as well as those with sterile necrosis. In pancreatic abscess and postacute pseudocyst, the treatment of first choice is intervention via ultrasound- or CT-guided percutaneous puncture and drainage of the abscess cavity. However, the majority of patients with a pancreatic abscess, treated interventionally, are candidates for a surgical drainage procedure because the interventional drainage fails to control the sepsis rapidly.     

Comparison of treatment modalities in pancreatic pseudocyst: A population based study

BACKGROUND Current therapeutic techniques for pancreatic pseudocyst include surgical management with a laparoscopic approach or an open surgical procedure,percutaneous catheter drainage and endoscopic drainage. Yet it remains controversial whether different treatment approaches affect inpatient outcome.AIM To investigate inpatient outcome of different treatment approaches in treating pancreatic pseudocyst.METHODS Here we conducted a retrospective analysis of pancreatic pseudocyst-associated hospitalizations using the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project-Nationwide Inpatient Sample. International Classification of Diseases 10 clinical modification and procedure codes are used.RESULTS A total of 7060 patients meeting the above criteria were identified. Our study revealed laparoscopic approach associated with the lowest rate of red blood cell transfusion(P 0.001), and it had lower short-term complications including acute renal failure(P = 0.01), urinary tract infection(P = 0.01), sepsis(P 0.001) and acute respiratory failure(P = 0.01). Laparoscopic surgical approach associated with the shortest mean length of stay(P = 0.009), and it had the lowest total charge(P = 0.03). All three modalities have similar inpatient mortality(P = 0.28).The study also revealed that percutaneous drainage associated with more emergent admission(P 0.001), rural hospital performs the most open surgical drainage(P 0.001) and patients who received laparoscopic drainage are more likely to be discharged home(P 0.001).CONCLUSION Laparoscopic drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts associated with the least shortterm complications and had better outcomes comparing to percutaneous and open surgical drainage from 2016 National Inpatient Sample database.     

Pancreatic abscess: 10 years experience

Background: Secondary infections of pancreatic and peripancreatic necrosis account for most of the deaths following acute pancreatitis. These infections occur in the form of ‘infected pancreatic necrosis’ and ‘pancreatic abscess’. The latter is a rare complication of acute pancreatitis in comparison with the former. Methods: Twenty‐one patients with pancreatic abscess were managed over a 10‐year period at a tertiary care centre in Northern India. The present report details the clinical profile, investigations performed and management strategy (surgery and intervention radiology) of these patients. The role of surgery and percutaneous catheter drainage (PCD) in the management of pancreatic abscess is discussed, with emphasis on the successful outcome seen in a properly selected group of patients managed by PCD. Results: Of the 21 patients, 12 were managed by percutaneous intervention, nine were managed surgically (of these, two had a prior PCD) and two patients were managed conservatively. The overall mortality was 9.5% (2/21). Thus, percutaneous management was suitable for 57% patients, was successful in 83.3%, with a mortality of 8.3%. Surgical therapy alone was offered to 33% of patients, was successful in 85.7%, with a mortality of 14.2%. Complications were seen in four of the nine patients managed by percutaneous drainage alone and eight of the nine patients managed surgically. Conclusions: Pancreatic abscess is a potentially lethal complication in patients recovering from acute pancreatitis. Early diagnosis and prompt intervention with careful selection of patients based on computed tomography imaging for surgical or percutaneous radio­logical management, is met with a successful outcome in a majority of patients. The roles of surgery and PCD are complementary.     

An unusual complication after percutaneous drainage of a pancreatic pseudocyst into the stomach

In the period between September 1995 and June 1999, we performed percutaneous drainage into the stomach in 12 patients. There were no complications or pseudocyst recurrences on insertion or after endoscopic removal of the catheter, which was left in site for 1 year on average. After endoscopic removal of the drainage catheter, one of the patients presented with a cystic formation in the stomach wall, which caused stomach emptying disorder. Therefore, the patient had to be reoperated. The cyst wall was incised and a part of the cystic wall sampled for histological examination. The cyst was then drained into the isolated Roux loop of the jejunum. Histological findings of the cystic wall specimen showed the presence of granulation tissue and smooth muscle layers with ganglia cells of myenteric nerve plexus. Despite this complication, we believe that percutaneous endoscopically and ultrasonographically guided drainage of pancreatic pseudocyst into the stomach by means of a double pigtail catheter is a good method that yields encouraging results in sonographically selected cases. The position of the drainage catheter needs to be checked endoscopically, and the catheter should be removed only after 1 year.     

Acute severe pancreatitis: limitations of medical treatment

The natural course of severe acute pancreatitis can be divided into two successive phases. The initial phase is characterized by the systemic manifestations resulting from the acute inflammatory response that takes place in the pancreas. The second stage reflects the progression of pancreatic necrosis towards spontaneous resolution, pseudocyst formation or secondary infection. While the treatment of these latter complications mainly consists of surgery (drainage of pseudocyst/infected necrosis) prevention and management of the initial systemic complications of acute pancreatitis is essentially involves medical therapy (empirical treatment, percutaneous peritoneal dialysis and thoracic duct drainage). Only the simultaneous and appropriate use of these various therapeutic modalities can ensure a substantial reduction in the mortality of severe acute pancreatitis. The place of these therapeutic approaches is discussed.     

Duct drainage alone is sufficient in the operative management of pancreatic pseudocyst in patients with chronic pancreatitis

OBJECTIVE: To test a hypothesis that definitive management of pseudocyst associated with chronic pancreatitis is predicated on addressing pancreatic ductal anatomy. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: The authors have previously confirmed the impact of pancreatic ductal anatomic abnormalities on the success of percutaneous drainage of pancreatic pseudocyst. The authors have further defined a system to categorize the pancreatic ductal abnormalities that can be seen with pancreatic pseudocyst. The authors have published, as have others, the usefulness of defining ductal anatomy when managing pancreatic pseudocysts associated with chronic pancreatitis. METHODS: Beginning in 1985, all patients with pseudocyst who were candidates for intervention (operative, percutaneous, or endoscopic) have undergone endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). An associated diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis was established by means of ERCP findings. Patients were candidates for longitudinal pancreaticojejunostomy (LPJ) if they had a pancreatic ductal diameter greater than 7 mm. In a nonrandomized fashion, patients were managed with either combined simultaneous LPJ and pseudocyst drainage or with LPJ alone. RESULTS: Two hundred fifty-three patients with pseudocyst have been evaluated. Among these there have been 103 patients with chronic pancreatitis and main pancreatic duct (MPD) dilatation (>7 mm). Among these 103 patients, 56 underwent combined LPJ/pseudocyst drainage and 47 had LPJ alone. Compared to combined LPJ/pseudocyst drainage, the patients undergoing LPJ alone had a shorter operative time, slightly less transfusion requirement, slightly reduced length of hospital stay, and slightly reduced complication rate. Long-term pain relief was achieved in 90%, and pseudocyst recurrence was less than 1%. Rates of each of these long-term outcomes were nearly incidental among the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: Ductal drainage alone (LPJ) is sufficient in patients with chronic pancreatitis (MPD > 7 mm) and an associated pseudocyst. Simultaneous drainage of pseudocyst is not necessary.     

Ultrasound-guided percutaneous drainage of infected pancreatic necrosis

Background

The role of percutaneous drainage in the management of infected pancreatic necrosis remains controversial, and ultrasound-guided technique is rarely used for this indication. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the safety and efficacy of sonographically guided percutaneous catheter drainage for infected pancreatic necrosis.

Methods

The patient group consisted of 16 men and 2 women. The mean age of the patients was 47 years. The median computed tomography severity index of acute pancreatitis was 10 points. Percutaneous catheter drainage was performed under sonographic guidance using preferably retroperitoneal approach, and transperitoneal access in selected cases. The medical records and imaging scans were reviewed retrospectively for each patient.

Results

Percutaneous catheter drainage resulted in a complete resolution of infected pancreatic necrosis in 6 of 18 patients (33 %). Twelve of 18 patients who were initially managed with PCD required eventually necrosectomy (67 %). The most common reason for crossover to surgical intervention was persistent sepsis (n = 7). Open necrosectomy was performed in 4 of these patients, and 3 patients underwent successful minimally invasive retroperitoneal necrosectomy. Five patients required conversion to open surgery because of procedure-related complications. In 3 cases, there was leakage of the necrotic material into the peritoneal cavity. Two other patients experienced hemorrhagic complications. Overall mortality rate was 17 %. The size of the largest necrotic collection in patients who were successfully treated with percutaneous drainage decreased by a median of 76 % shortly after the procedure, whereas it decreased only by a median of 16 % in cases of failure of percutaneous drainage.

Conclusions

Ultrasound-guided percutaneous catheter drainage used in infected pancreatic necrosis is a technique with acceptably low morbidity and mortality that may be the definitive treatment or a bridge management to necrosectomy. A negligible decrease in size of the necrotic collection predicts failure of percutaneous drainage.     

Interventional and surgical treatment of pancreatic abscess

Pancreatic abscess is one of the infectious complications of acute pancreatitis. It is a collection principally containing pus, but it may also contain variable amounts of semisolid necrotic debris. Most of these abscesses evolve from the progressive liquefaction of necrotic pancreatic and peripancreatic tissues, but some arise from infection of peripancreatic fluid or collections elsewhere in the peritoneal cavity. Included also are abscesses found after surgical débridement and drainage of pancreatic necrosis. Although open surgical treatment of infected necrosis is the established treatment of choice, percutaneous drainage of abscesses is successful in some circumstances. We used percutaneous catheter drainage in 39 patients during 1987–1995. Only 9 of 29 (31%) attempts at primary therapy were successful; 2 patients died, and 18 required subsequent surgical drainage. On the other hand, 14 of 14 patients with recurrent or residual abscesses after surgical drainage were successfully drained percutaneously. Percutaneous catheter drainage of pancreatic abscesses may be useful for initial stabilization of septic patients, drainage of further abscesses after surgical intervention (especially when access for reoperation will be difficult), associated abscesses remote from the pancreas, and selected unilocular collections at a sufficient interval after necrotizing pancreatitis to have allowed essentially complete liquefaction.     

Imaging in pancreatic infection

The most common cause of infection involving the pancreas is complicated pancreatitis. Infected necrosis, pancreatic abscess, and infection of pancreatic pseudocysts are seen. Diagnostic imaging, in particular, contrast-enhanced computed tomography, plays a large role in the identification of the complications seen in acute pancreatitis. The imaging findings of the infectious complications of pancreatitis is reviewed. Diagnostic imaging also plays a role in the diagnosis of infected necrosis and in the percutaneous management of pancreatic abscesses and pseudocysts. The imaging findings of pancreatic necrosis are usually not sensitive to the presence of co-existent infection. Image-guided needle aspiration of the necrotic pancreas can be crucial in the diagnosis of infected necrosis. Image-guided placement of percutaneous drainage catheters is a nonsurgical alternative for the management of pancreatic abscesses and pseudocysts. Image-guided catheter placement and the management of these catheters is discussed.     

闭合性胰腺创伤的临床诊断和治疗研究进展

闭合性胰腺创伤并不常见,其影像学表现不明显,合并多器官损伤相互掩盖,临床体征不明确,往往难以诊断,易误诊、漏诊,故病死率高。闭合性胰腺创伤应结合影像学证据、实验室检查,综合受伤史和临床表现进行诊断。其治疗取决于创伤级别和部位,对于血流动力学稳定的低级别创伤,通常采用非手术治疗方案,包括禁食、全肠外营养、应用生长抑素、抑酸治疗、外引流、胰管支架置入、重复影像学检查以及结合患者具体情况积极处理并发症和合并症等;血流动力学不稳定的患者通常不建议非手术治疗。高级别创伤手术难度大,通常依据“损伤控制”原则,综合患者受伤情况、生理状态及术中实际情况权衡利弊,并结合所在诊疗中心实际能力选择合适的个体化治疗策略,必要时可考虑转往区域性胰腺中心治疗。闭合性胰腺创伤后常见的并发症包括假性囊肿和胰瘘等,术后应尽早使用生长抑素来减少胰液的分泌,预防胰瘘,也可以通过经皮引流置入、内镜下支架置入和内镜下囊肿-胃造口术或囊肿-空肠造口术来处理。胰腺假性囊肿的形成多因术后引流不畅所致,通过适当冲洗和穿刺置管引流便可治愈,很少需要再次手术。笔者结合既往研究文献及所在中国人民解放军空军军医大学第一附属医院治疗经验对闭合性...