Response of bird populations in jarrah and yarri forest in Western Australia following removal of half the canopy of the jarrah forest

Counts of birds present in jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest on ridges and in yarri (E. patens) forest along streams were made during spring in three consecutive years, 1981–83. Thirty-eight species were recorded in set transects during the study. Six species were restricted to yarri, nine occurred only in jarrah, and eleven tended to be more abundant in yarri. The number of birds of all species was greater in the yarri forest.

Early in 1983, part of the jarrah forest was thinned, reducing canopy cover by about one-half, including removal of all Banksia grandis. The bird community showed few immediate changes. Two species were recorded as significantly more frequent after treatment and no species was recorded as significantly less frequent after treatment. The number of bird species present was similar in unlogged and logged jarrah forest. Two species became significantly more abundant in the yarri forest after the jarrah forest was logged. These findings suggest that most bird species in the jarrah forest may be adaptable to gross disturbance of the forest.     

Occurrence of potential nest trees and their use by birds in sclerophyll forest in north-east Tasmania

Breeding of hollow-nesting birds and the distribution and availability of tree hollows were investigated in an area of sclerophyll forest in north-eastern Tasmania. The occurrence of potential tree hollows was assessed from the ground and used as an index of actual hollows. Entrance size was categorized as small, medium or large corresponding to the differing requirements of the birds present on the site. Smaller hollows were more abundant than larger hollows. The distribution of hollows amongst trees was highly clumped. Diameter at breast height and the presence of a fire scar explained one-third of the variation in numbers of hollows per tree. Streamside and non-streamside areas did not differ in the number of hollows/tree or the sizes of hollows present. Thirty trees were found that were utilized as nest sites by striated pardalotes Pardalotus striatus, laughing kookaburras Dacelo novae- gaineae, green rosellas Platycercus caledonicus and yellow-tailed black cockatoo Calyptorhynchus funereus. In comparison with a representative sample of trees, nest trees were larger, had a greater number of potential hollows, a greater proportion of larger hollows and a greater proportion were fire scarred. Eucalyptus viminalis was used as a nest tree to a greater extent than expected from its relative abundance. Hollows appeared to be far in excess of the requirements of the birds present. Trees remaining in streamside reserves after logging would probably provide enough hollows to support the number of hollow-nesting birds present before logging. However, only 13% of striated pardalotes and none of the other species utilized streamside areas for nesting in the undisturbed forest.     

Browsing of Mountain Ash Regeneration by Wallabies and Possums in Tasmania

Possums (Trichosurus vulpecula fuliginosus) and wallabies (Thylogale biliardieri) browse on woody species in many areas of mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans F.Muell) forest after logging and burning, and Wallabia rufogrisea var. frutica also is found in some areas.

The browsing is most damaging if it completely defoliates the plants in autumn. Many plants are killed. Variations between plant species in palatibility and ability to survive defoliation result in alterations in the composition of the vegetation.

The satisfactory regeneration of mountain ash requires prevention of excessive browsing in the first one to two years after germination. Attempts at ecological control of browsing have been unsuccessful and direct control by poisoning or capture is carried out.     

THE POTENTIAL FOR INCREASING FOREST PRODUCTIVITY

The short term solution to increasing forest productivity in Australia lies in rapid expansion of reforestation works: the problems involved here are in part social and economic. In the long run, biological problems may prove more important, and these are discussed with reference to (1) plant introduction and breeding, and (2) cultural measures, including fertilizing.

Plant introduction trials may fail if the soil fertility factor is overlooked. This is illustrated by the introduction of hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii Ait.), a rainforest species, into the sclerophyll forest environment of the coastal lowlands of south Queensland.

Utilization of poorly drained sites in this region would greatly increase its potential for forestry. The humic gley soils can produce high yields provided the trees can survive an intermittently high water table during the first few years. The low humic gley soils are less fertile, but should have considerable potential when planted to a suitable species and appropriately fertilized.

Phosphorus is the major limiting nutrient in lateritic podzolic soils. Total soil phosphate was formerly used as an index of phosphorus status, but a more reliable index is needed. Attention is being directed to the use of plant analysis: critical levels for phosphorus in the foliage of loblolly pine (P.taeda L.) and slash pine (P.elliottii Engelm.) have been tentatively established.

Loblolly pine planted on lateritic podzolic soils in southeast Queensland may become deficient in nitrogen and potassium during the establishment phase. Response to nitrogen fertilizers is ephemeral, being most pronounced in the year of planting. Evidence points to a change in the nitrogen economy of exotic pine stands once they have formed canopy.

Quantitative data on all aspects of ecosystem dynamics are needed to provide a rational basis for the utilization of forest resources. Site deterioration may occur if losses from the nutrient cycle are not balanced by accession of nutrients, either by fertilizing or by natural processes. The magnitude of such losses and gains must be known in addition to the details of the nutrient cycle itself.     

Application of ecological and evolutionary principles to forest management in Western Australia

After setting forth a set of fundamental concepts (principles) based on our interpretation of current knowledge in the biological sciences, we show that the management of the native eucalypt forest of southwest Western Australia is consistent with these principles. This consistency is the major reason that this forest remains in ecologically good condition following 120 years of timber harvesting (in some of the forest) and 30 years of prescribed burning (over most of the forest). This demonstrates the resilience of the forest ecosystem and its ability to respond to, and cope with, change. It also demonstrates that if forest management is based on sound scientific principles it results in minimal lasting changes to the forest ecosystem. There is, however, a need for ongoing research, which should be focused on the small minority of species that are exceptions. These are species which fall outside the ambit of fundamental concepts on which management is based or which occur in areas where forest management practices impinge on the principles. Included are species with low reproductive rate, species sensitive to frequent fire, species highly susceptible to the introduced fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi and occurring mainly on susceptible sites, archaic species, species with limited powers of dispersal, species dependent on a circumscribed set of essential habitat factors provided by certain individual trees, large vertebrate predator species, and native species subject to predation or competition from introduced species. Special management is required for all of these.

Natural Philosophy consists in discovering the frame and operations of nature, and reducing them, as far as may be, to general rules or laws—establishing these rules by observations and experiments, and thence deducing the causes and effects of things…Newton

The wildest and most improbable conjectures may be advanced with as much certainty as the most just and sublime theories, founded on careful and reiterated experiments. We may return to the old mode of philosophising and make facts bend to systems, instead of establishing systems uponfacts…Malthus     

Natural regeneration in wet sclerophyll forest with an overstorey of Eucalyptus microcorys,E. saligna and Lophostemon confertus

Natural regeneration in wet sclerophyll forest dominated by Eucalyptus microcorys, E. saligna and Lophostemon confertus in the mid north coast of New South Wales was investigated by survey and relating past silvicultural history to present stocking.

At all sites examined sufficient regeneration was obtained to replace the sclerophyllous overstorey with or without post-logging burning. The principal sclerophyll overstorey species present prior to logging were all present in the regeneration irrespective of the silvicultural treatment. Post-logging burning increased regeneration stocking and favoured the establishment of E. saligna. Soil disturbance and overhead cover were found to be important factors in regeneration establishment and development respectively.     

Tree hollow development in wet and dry sclerophyll eucalypt forest in south-east Queensland,Australia

Tree hollow development was studied in Eucalyptus pilularis (blackbutt) and Eucalyptus microcorys (tallowwood) in wet sclerophyll forests, and Eucalyptus signata (scribbly gum) in dry sclerophyll forest in south-east Queensland, Australia. In all three tree species hollow development appeared to be primarily initiated by fungal infection entering trees through dead branches and/or branch stubs rather than from fire scars. The process of hollow development appeared to commence when the trees were around 100 years old.

The size and abundance of hollows increased with the size and age of the tree but there were apparent differences between species. Hollows were found in the majority (>50%) of E. pilularis trees above 100 cm dbh. By contrast most E. microcorys and E. signata larger than 80 cm dbh had hollows. There was a similar difference between species in the numbers of hollows present in trees of different size. E. pilularis trees 100–110 cm dbh had two hollows per tree but this number were present in much smaller E. microcorys or E. signata trees. The rate of growth of E. pilularis is faster than either E. microcorys or E. signata and the rate of hollow formation appears to be dependent on the growth rate of the species. This suggests that hollows begin to develop after comparable times in the different species although the time taken for large hollow development differs between the species.

The analyses suggest that the smallest arboreal marsupials and hollow dependent birds could recolonise regrowth E. pilularis trees after about 165 years but hollows suitable for larger animals would not be available for around 210 years. This time frame would be longer for slower growing species of trees. Some of the implications of this work in connection with management practices that aim to ensure the maintenance of hollow-dependent fauna in these forests are discussed.     

Responses of foraging ant populations to high-intensity wildfire,salvage logging and natural regeneration processes in Eucalyptus regnans regrowth forest of the Victorian Central Highlands

The effects of high-intensity wildfire plus salvage logging and fire-induced natural regeneration processes on foraging ants (Formicidae) were assessed in multiple-use Eucalyptus regnans (Mountain Ash) regrowth forest approximately 60 km east of Melbourne in the Victorian Central Highlands. The study was based on 35 912 ant specimens, and on 69 493 epigeal non-ant arthropods of 27 taxa, contained in 2,160 pitfall trap samples collected at three sites over a single pre-fire year and two post-fire years.

Twenty ant species of sub-families Dolichoderinae, Formicinae, Myrmeciinae, Myrmicinae and Ponerinae were identified, but only Notoncus spinisquamis, Myrmecia pilosula and Chelaner sculpturatus could be validated. Two species were placed into the newly erected genus OcheteUus (Dolichoderinae), and one species of Myrmicinae could not be identified below sub-family rank. The biology and taxonomy of the majority of these species is uncertain, although the most commonly trapped ant, Prolasius? pallidus, is a recognised seed harvester, and two other species of Prolasius plus C. sculpturatus are suspected seed harvesters. The second most frequently trapped species, Iridomyrmex? foetans, is a carnivore and scavenger. Chelaner sculpturatus was the most frequently trapped among 18 “minor” species.

The rapid replacement of the ecologically complex regrowth forest by young even-aged regeneration of E. regnans through wildfire effects and salvage logging caused a substantial increase in foraging activity of P. pallidus during the first post-fire autumn period, and activity remained high for up to 14 months depending on elevation of the forested landscape. Activity of I. foetans declined immediately after the fire, but eight months later it was significantly higher than “control plot” levels for up to four months. The response of the less frequently trapped “minor” species to the wildfire, logging and regeneration processes remained uncertain because of the low numbers trapped before and after the fire. Prolific regeneration of E. regnans emerged in the burnt forest, suggesting that fire-induced seed fall was sufficiently large and extensive to have caused predator satiation. The implications of this for artificial regeneration programs in E. regnans forest are discussed.     

Early impacts of disturbance on lichens,mosses and liverworts in Tasmania’s wet eucalypt production forests

The impacts of silvicultural disturbance (felling and burning) on lichens, mosses and liverworts in Eucalyptus obliqua-dominated wet forest in Tasmania were investigated. The study was based on presence–absence data for 452 taxa from 52 sampling events, spanning unlogged forest and disturbed, regenerating forest about 1, 3 and 5 years after disturbance. Three aspects of species composition were compared: total species richness, occurrence of pre-disturbance species in the post-disturbance flora and relative richness of ecological groups in the flora. Total species richness was the least reliable measure for evaluating changes due to disturbance.

Felling and burning in different combinations were represented in a range of silvicultural treatments applied in the study area. They produced different levels of disturbance and different microhabitats, and thereby defined the character of the cryptogamic flora. The most severe impacts occurred at burnt sites, regardless of whether the forest had been felled or not, and the least impact was found in standing, unburnt forest.

The consequences of severe disturbance were a substantial change in species composition, with a reduction, in particular, of mature wet forest species in favour of species associated with disturbance or brightly lit, exposed environments. In the lichens, the loss of old tree indicators, old forest indicators, foliicolous species, rare species of conservation significance and species indicative of a succession towards cool temperate rainforest was especially severe. Mosses and liverworts also showed a very pronounced loss of mature wet forest species. In the mosses, the presence of newcomers, represented mostly by disturbance species or species typical of open drier conditions, masked the extent of these losses. In the liverworts, there were few newcomers and the composition of the post-disturbance flora was much depleted.     

Predicting employment outcomes of rehabilitation clients with orthopedic disabilities: A CHAID analysis

Purpose.?To examine demographic and service factors affecting employment outcomes of people with orthopedic disabilities in public vocational rehabilitation programs in the United States.

Method.?The sample included 74,861 persons (55% men and 45% women) with disabilities involving the limbs or spinal column who were closed either as rehabilitated or not rehabilitated by their state-run vocational rehabilitation agencies in the fiscal year 2001. Mean age of participants was 41.4 years (SD?=?11.2). The dependent variable is employment outcomes. The predictor variables include a set of personal history variables and rehabilitation service variables.

Results.?The chi-squared automatic interaction detector (CHAID) analysis indicated that job placement services significantly enhanced competitive employment outcomes but were significantly underutilized (only 25% of the clients received this service). Physical restoration and assistive technology services along with support services such as counseling also contributed to positive employment outcomes. Importantly, clients who received general assistance, supplementary security income, and/or social security disability insurance benefits had a significant lower competitive employment rates (45%) than clients without such work disincentives (60%).

Conclusion.?The data mining approach (i.e., CHAID analysis) provided detailed information and insight about interactions among demographic variables, service patterns, and competitive employment rates through the segmentation of the sample into mutually exclusive homogeneous subgroups.     

Forestcheck: the response of vascular flora to silviculture in jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest

Forest understorey vascular plants were monitored across a sequence of time since treatment to assess the effects of silviculture (timber harvesting and regeneration systems) in jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest in south-west Western Australia. Species richness, abundance and structure were assessed at 48 sites in four jarrah forest ecosystems. Monitoring grids in reference forest, which was either uncut or had not been harvested for at least 40 y, were compared to grids in forest that had undergone shelterwood/selective cut and gap release silvicultural treatments. A total of 446 plant species was recorded of which 68, 22 and 35 species were recorded on only one grid within the reference, shelterwood/selective cut and gap release treatments respectively. Silvicultural treatments had no significant long-term effect on mean species richness and abundance of understorey plants, but had a distinct influence on plant community composition. Reference forest had more species of small and medium shrubs compared with silvicultural treatments. Xanthorrhoea preisii (a grass tree) was significantly less common in silvicultural treatments compared with reference forest and Allocasuarina fraseriana (a small to medium tree) and Kennedia coccinea (a vine) were more common on harvested grids. The mean number of plant species per grid was not significantly different between treatments or forest ecosystems. There was, however, strong regional variation in plant community composition, especially in the Jarrah Blackwood Plateau and Jarrah South forest ecosystems and which probably reflects the influence of climatic and edaphic factors on jarrah forest species composition. Dominance-diversity curves for each treatment showed that ranking of species with high abundance was similar in all treatments, but varied between treatments for species with very low abundances. There was no significant relationship between species richness and time since last fire because field assessments were carried out at least 3–13 y after disturbance, by which time species assemblages had stabilised.     

Eucalypt plantations in Tasmania

The areas of eucalypt plantations in Tasmania are examined by species and ownership category (to the end of 1984).

Prior to the early 1970s annual plantings averaged less than 20 ha but since then they have been gradually increased to an average of over 1500 ha for the period 1982–1984. These changes are attributable to the ready availability of a market for eucalypt pulpwood with the advent of export woodchipping in the early 1970s, and in 1979 the introduction of schemes assisting rural land owners to establish plantations. Industrial forestry companies, rural land owners and the State own 60%, 20% and 20% of the plantings, respectively. Almost 90% of plantings are in the north-west or north-east forest regions. The main species planted are two species of the southern blue gum group, Eucalyptus globulus spp. globulus and E. nitens, which each account for approximately 32% of the 11 400 ha planted. These two species have shown significantly superior early growth compared with the 24 other species examined, including 14 mainland species. The development of eucalypt breeding strategies in Tasmania is briefly discussed.     

Coleoptera in litter of dry sclerophyll eucalypt forest and the effects of low-intensity prescribed fire on their activity and composition in west-central Victoria

Surface-active Coleoptera (beetles) were monitored in dry sclerophyll mixed eucalypt forest of west-central Victoria near Daylesford, and the effects of a one-off low-intensity prescribed fire applied during spring (15 October 1985) or autumn (25 March 1987) were assessed on families and species between 19 March 1985 and 28 February 1989. The study was based on 27 550 adult specimens, ranging in length from 0.5 mm to 22.0 mm and representing 30 families and 109 species, of which 78 species (71.6%) are undescribed. The most commonly trapped ‘major’ families were the Staphylinidae (predominantly predators), followed by the Nitidulidae and Leiodidae (both decomposers/fungus feeders). The specimens were contained in 3 140 pitfall trap samples taken from two sites burnt in spring, two sites burnt in autumn and one ‘control’ site, all adjacent to each other within an 80.5 ha study area. This is the first Australian study that has examined in detail the effects of prescribed fire on both families and species of the Coleoptera within litter of native forest.

A high level of stability in activity was evident among coleopteran populations over the 4-year study period when fire was absent. The same was observed at the two sites burnt in autumn (fire intensity = 176 kW m^?1). Both fires had no effect on family or species richness. However, the spring fire (256 kW m^?1) at one study site temporarily boosted activity of the ‘major’ family Staphylinidae after early autumn of the second post-fire year, and induced a short burst in activity of species Thalycrodes pulchrum (Nitidulidae) during the first post-fire winter, and among Leiodidae during the first postfire spring. At both spring-burnt sites, the pool of the 19 less commonly trapped ‘minor’ families incurred an immediate post-fire upsurge lasting until early summer 1986. As these positive responses at the spring-burnt sites were associated with a 4.41 ha^?1 lower fine fuel load (humus, litter, twigs of < 6mm diameter) during the first post-fire year compared with the autumn-burnt sites, it is possible that they reflect enhanced trapping efficiency and not increased population levels. Until this question is resolved, it appears preferable to apply any necessary one-off prescribed fire for reducing fuel loads on the forest floor during autumn rather than spring to minimise possible short-term impacts on surface-active Coleoptera.     

The changing needs of patients after primary rehabilitation: An overlooked entity

Purpose: The need for rehabilitation should not be viewed as a single event that may occur during a lifetime. This theme is explored.

Method: A case of a man who lost the distal portions of all four limbs, is reported.

Results: He was rehabilitated and spent many years as an active member of the community. The physical changes, owing to advancing age, were overlooked.

Conclusions: Attention is drawn to the fact that long term re-evaluation of function is periodically required.     

Problems of regeneration of the mature Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell, (The Big Ash) forest,in the absence of fire at Wallaby Creek,Victoria, Australia

This paper is based on observations on the regeneration of a mature E. regnans forest begun in 1949 and extending over the next 50 years. Any regeneration of E. regnans in the unburnt, mature forest is confronted by a phalanx of obstacles. The formation of large gaps which synchronously involve the overstorey, shrub understorey and fern stratum are an essential prerequisite for establishment, although success may not be assured unless the seedbed has been favourably prepared by mechanical disturbance or fire. In this study, regeneration, which was initiated experimentally by a heavy sowing of seed, scarification of soil, addition of nitrogenous fertilizer, creation of moderately good light conditions and the removal of competition by seedlings of understorey species in the first season, failed completely after 10–11 years even though understorey species which germinated from the soil seed bank continued to thrive.

Processes of seed germination and seedling development are explored in terms of seed harvesting by ants, insect attack, heating and desiccation of the soil surface, mammal browsing, light intensity and dimorphic leaf orientation, mycorrhizal associations, root competition, allelopathic factors, leaf spot fungi and chewing and gall-forming insects. In the tall forest lateral light is considered critical for continued vigour of advanced seedlings with pendulous foliage. Thus, gaps which permit satisfactory development of young seedlings are inadequate for saplings, especially if they are in competition with vigorous regeneration of understorey species. Under light-limiting conditions, survival is severely jeopardized by any factor affecting leaf area or leaf function. It is concluded that while E. regnans appears to be physiologically tolerant of moderate shade it lacks the wider ecological tolerance to it.

Without fire, the regeneration of E. regnans will almost certainly fail in the mature forest unless accompanied by exceptional circumstances. Group tree falls are needed to create regeneration but only on sites incompletely covered by dense ground fern. Synchronous gaps may be needed to disperse herbivore activity in the critical early years. Crown fire eliminates most of the difficulties encountered by E. regnans regeneration by causing mass seedfall, creating a suitable seed bed and by temporarily changing the microclimate, soil moisture regime, soil nutrient status, microbial populations and ant foraging activity. Regeneration may occur in groups following surface fires if large canopy gaps have been produced. In the unlikely event of a very long period without fire, succession to a form of rainforest is likely to occur, although the species may not be eliminated entirely from the area due to the possibility of chance establishment.     

Evaluation of a short-term group psychotherapy used as part of the rehabilitation process in nursing home patients

Abstract

Purpose: The aim of this study was to assess the impact of a 4-week group psychotherapy on the efficacy of physiotherapy in patients rehabilitated in a nursing home (NH). Materials and methods: The study was performed on 28 women, aged 77.1 (±5.6) years. Thirty-six percent were rehabilitated due to orthopaedic injuries, 36% had undergone a stroke, 28% suffered from chronic diseases of old age. Subjects were divided into two groups: experimental (n?=?13) and control (n?=?15). In the experimental group, a short-term, goal-focused group psychotherapy was used. To assess cognitive impairment, mood and functional status the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE), the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS-15) and the Barthel Index (BI) were used. Results: In the experimental group a four times greater improvement in mood was observed and two times greater physiotherapy efficacy (PE) in the first month of stay in an NH as compared to the control group. The effects of psychotherapy were independent of the type of disease, the patients’ age, number of comorbidities and cognitive status (ranging from 15 to 30 points on the MMSE). Conclusions: Short-term group psychotherapy can be an effective method of supporting the process of rehabilitating older, disabled people rehabilitated in an NH.

• Implications for Rehabilitation

• Psychotherapy can improve the efficacy of treatment and rehabilitation in different somatic illnesses despite the advanced age of respondents, high disability rate, and the presence of cognitive impairments.

• Even short-term (4 weeks) group psychotherapy can provide effective support for the rehabilitation in the elderly.

     

Removal of phosphorous in logs when harvesting Eucalyptus delegatensis and Pinus radiata forests on short and long rotations

The quantity of phosphorus (P) accumulated in the wood and bark of tree stems, and which is removed from the forest by harvesting, has been estimated for native Eucalyptus delegatensis stands and Pinus radiata plantations on the southern tablelands of New South Wales. The rates at which P is accumulated and removed in logs are compared for the two species grown on either short (20 yr) or longer (40 yr for P. radiata, 60 yr for E. delegatensis) rotations.

The comparison showed that in stands which are older than about 7 years, 3–5 times more P is removed from the forest when harvesting a unit weight of P. radiata log (wood and bark) because this species contains more sapwood (which persists for 17–25 years before being transformed to heartwood) than E. delegatensis (7 years of sapwood), and the concentration of P is much greater in sapwood than in heartwood. The concentration of P is more than three (and can be ten) times greater in the heartwood of P. radiata than it is in E. delegatensis.

Shortening of rotations will increase the amount of P removed per unit of wood harvested for both species. If E. delegatensis were to be managed on short rotations of about 7 years when all or most of the harvest is sapwood, then there may be little difference in the quantity of P removed per unit of wood between this species and P. radiata of the same age.

Harvesting of boles from P. radiata grown on a rotation of 20 years compared with that of E. delegatensis grown on a rotation of 57 years can increase the amount of P removed from the forest by a factor of almost 6. Since both the amount of P in the soils and the natural inputs of P are small, we conclude that fertilisation is likely to be necessary in order to sustain reasonable productivity in many Australian plantations of radiata pine.     

JARRAH STEM DISTRIBUTIONS

Laboratory bioassays were conducted on the susceptibility of air-dried sapwood specimens, from trees of both regrowth and mature karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) and jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata), to attack by the powder post borer (Lyctus brunneus). The susceptibility of regrowth karri was determined using material collected from 10 trees (five trees x two areas) each at three positions (the butt, midway along the bole and the crown). Material from the butts of 64 mature trees, representing three different areas in the south west of Western Australia, was similarly assessed. Both regrowth and mature karri specimens were collected from trees within the main karri estate. The susceptibility of both regrowth and mature jarrah was compared concurrently in a bioassay which evaluated butt specimens of approximately 20 trees from each of three different areas in the jarrah forest. Prior to the bioassays, all specimens were assessed for starch concentration in the sapwood.

Some sapwood specimens of both regrowth and mature karri were susceptible to attack by L. brunneus. Specimens cut from the butt position of regrowth karri trees contained the highest concentration of starch and were more heavily attacked by L. brunneus. Similarly, some regrowth and mature jarrah specimens from some areas were susceptible to attack.

Differences in starch concentration and susceptibility between areas from which each timber species was harvested were revealed. Positive correlations, between starch concentration and susceptibility of mature karri and regrowth and mature jarrah, were obtained. A revision of previously published ratings for both karri and jarrah is recommended. We further recommend that a re-assessment of the susceptibility to L. brunneus of all commercially available hardwood timber species be undertaken, particularly if a regrowth resource of those species is being utilised or likely to be utilised in the near future.     

Prolotherapy in Whiplash and Low Back Pain

Relaxation of ligaments and tendons occurs when fibers do not regain their normal tensile strength after having been sprained or torn. This condition causes more chronic whiplash and low back pain, more referred pain and more sciatica than does any other entity.

Diagnosis may be confirmed by intraligamentous injection of a local anesthetic solution.

An incompetent structure may be rehabilitated by intraligamentous injection of a proliferating solution which stimulates the production both of new bone and of fibrous tissue cells.     

Wildlife conservation and softwood forestry in Australia: some considerations

Conversion of large areas of native eucalypt forest to exotic conifer plantations in south-eastern Australia has met with considerable criticism from people and organizations outside the forestry industry. The effect on wildlife has been a particularly contentious issue.

Recent research has shown that conifer plantations are not so-called biological deserts, but rather, simplified ecosystems designed to maximize wood production, which lack certain of the species of mammals, birds and plants present in mature native forest communities. Species numbers and population densities vary with stand age and the structural complexity of the vegetation, and particularly with the presence or absence of areas of native forest within or alongside the plantation.

Consideration is given to the formulation of management policies for conifer plantations, commensurate with wildlife conservation. The application of the equilibrium theory of island biogeography for the design of retained areas of native forest within a plantation is discussed. It is concluded that for optimizing wildlife conservation plantation management should be directed towards the establishment of pine stands with interconnecting areas of retained native forest throughout and alongside the plantation. Such plantation complexes would need to be managed on a compartmentalized basis if wildlife conservation and softwood forestry are to be reconciled.