EUCALYPTUS IN THE BRITISH ISLES

In recent years Australia has imported considerable quantities of soft wood timber, a proportion of which has been found to be infested with various species of siricid wasps. In view of the difficulties associated with the adequate inspection of such imports by quarantine officers it is not surprising that one species, Sirex noctilio F., which has been in New Zealand for many years, has now become established in a plantation of Pinus radiata in Tasmania.

The location and history of the Pittwater plantation is given together with details of the known distribution of the insect within the area.

The life cycle of the insect in Tasmania would appear to be similar to that reported in New Zealand, i.e. 1–2 years. From the available information it appears that the insect gained entry not later than the summer of 1950/51, but this may have occurred earlier.

Although an unidentified fungus has been found in association with S. noctilio in Tasmania the rapid and extensive wood rotting reported from New Zealand has not been observed.

The presence of S. noctilio may introduce a new factor into plantation management in Tasmania.     

THE KOSCIUSKO STATE PARK

Dropping the fire retardant PHOS-CHEK from aircraft onto small fires is now part of the initial attack effort on fires in remote mountain areas in Victoria. The operation is based on the results of research into the properties of four fire retardants and the suitability of available aircraft. This research is described together with operational aspects of handling fire retardant at established air attack bases.     

EUCALYPTUS IN INDIAN FORESTRY

The non-timber products of Australian forests are being increasingly demanded by the public. Foresters must show that they can consciously produce these products, one of which is birds, if they wish to continue as managers of all forested land.

Bird habitat, bird behaviour and the relationship between birds and forests are discussed in this article. The effects of various forest management practices such as fuel reduction burning and conversion of eucalypt areas to softwood are considered.

Not enough is known at present of the ecology of Australian birds to prescribe what should be done or what should not be done. Foresters are encouraged to become aware of the birds in their forests so that through this awareness they may increase their knowledge and thus qualify as more competent land managers.     

Forecasting and forestry planning

This paper presents a reconsideration of the methodology of preparing long term projections for forestry planning in Australia. It is argued that the general approach to long term forestry planning has not been guided by the rationality of economics. In attempting to develop an economic dimension in such planning a number of deficiencies in information and areas for future research in forest economics have become apparent. A conceptual model of the economics of a State forestry/sawmilling sector is presented and discussed as an alternative planning framework.     

STAND DENSITY AND THE RELATIONSHIP OF CROWN WIDTH TO DIAMETER AND HEIGHT IN EUCALYPTUS OBLIQUA

The concept of stand density is redefined and the requirements of a density measure for even-aged Messmate stands are discussed. Two extremes of density are recognised in the field, represented by open growing trees on one hand and dominant and co-dominant trees growing in a state of intense competition on the other. For the open grown trees, crown width is linearly related to stem diameter, independent of height, but in stands of maximum density mean dominant height is an important additional variable in the relationship. The effect of this three variable relationship is discussed and it is used to develop an index of stand density for the species, independent of age and site quality.     

SOME FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF TIMBER TO BOSTRYCHID ATTACK

In this paper common factors influencing the susceptibility of potentially susceptible timbers to bostrychid attack are outlined. In field work conducted at Grafton, spotted gum trees (Eucalyptus maculata Hook) were selected for exposure to bostrychid attack. It was evident that the initial attack on the billets was concentrated during the first month that they were exposed. No attack occurred on billets during June, July and August. The chief bostrychid species found at Grafton were Xylion cylindricus Macl., Xylion collaris Er., Xylobosca bispinosa Macl., and Xylodeleis obsipa Germar., Xylosocus gibbicollis Macl. and Bostrychopsis jesuita F. occurred in small numbers. X. cylindricus appeared consistently in large numbers and seemed to be the most common bostrychid although at times large numbers of X. bispinosa were found. From the laboratory and field work it was found that the following factors were important in relation to bostrychid attack: —

i. nature of the surface of the timber

ii. positioning of the timber

iii. relative proportion of sapwood and heartwood

iv. moisture content of the sapwood

v. climatic conditions.

Although the incidence of bostrychid attack depends on the combination of these factors (and probably others), the most important and complex criterion appears to be (iv) moisture content of the timber. The moisture content range of timber in which successful bostrychid attack can occur and the exact regions of the sapwood where the moisture content is important for the developmental stages in the bostrychid life cycle, have not yet been determined.     

Variable-retention harvesting in Tasmania: regeneration success?

Society’s changing expectations for forest management and an improved understanding of wet-forest ecology have led to the adoption of variable-retention silviculture in Tasmania’s old-growth wet eucalypt forests. Aggregated retention (ARN) retains patches of forest after harvesting to help maintain biodiversity and ecosystem function at the site level, but these ecological goals must be balanced against silvicultural considerations such as achieving successful regeneration. We sampled 38 ARN coupes that were harvested and regenerated from 2007 to 2010 and 31 paired clear-fell, burn and sow (CBS) coupes. Despite more complex boundary shapes and thus much higher levels of forest edge influence, the development of successful ‘slow burning’ methods combined with the adoption of aerial sowing in all ARN coupes has resulted in early regeneration densities and growth rates that are very comparable with those in clear-felled coupes. The longer-term effects of ARN harvesting on eucalypt productivity require further research, but these early results indicate that the initial silvicultural goals for eucalypt regeneration can be met after ARN harvesting in wet eucalypt forests.     

Impacts of timber harvest intensity on invertebrate biodiversity

The intensity of timber harvest is believed to have significant impacts on biodiversity values and the overall health of forest habitats. The extent and importance of these impacts is an emotive issue and objective reporting of effects of timber harvesting and silviculture on biodiversity is a significant challenge to forest managers. Rapid assessment of invertebrate biodiversity may provide a solution to this need. Pitfall trap samples of litter invertebrates from pastures, unlogged forest compartments, forest compartments previously harvested at 50% of usable timber and forest compartments with standard harvest conditions, involving the removal of 70–90% of all stems, were compared. There were significant differences in invertebrate abundance, richness and composition between forest and pasture habitats, but no detectable differences between forest treatment categories. Strong site effects on abundance, richness and composition were apparent. Pastures and each forest treatment category contributed unique morphospecies to the sample set. More than 20 y of post-harvest recovery has allowed invertebrate assemblage composition to converge to the extent that harvest effects are not readily detectable within this component of biodiversity. The value of invertebrate assessments as a solution for objective reporting of biodiversity value is discussed.     

THE EFFECT OF LOG GIRTH ON PRODUCTION AND RECOVERY IN A JARRAH SAWMILL

Studies in a Western Australian jarrah sawmill showed that log breaking down rate was increased by 86 per cent., and sawn production rate by 24 per cent., by an increase of 3 ft. 6 in. in log girth (from approx. 4ft. 9 in. to 8 ft 3 in.) At the same time, sawn recovery was raised by approx. 4 per cent, of the Hoppus log volume. Based on all personnel under the mill roof, a sawn output of 45½ sup ft. per man-hour was obtained. Recovery averaged 42 per cent. (Hoppus basis).     

DECAY IN TIMBER WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO JARRAH (EUCALYPTUS MARGINATA Sm.)

Populations of the phasmatid Didymuria violescens (Leach) have for 10 years been building up in the mountain eucalypt forests of south-eastern Australia, to such a degree that severe defoliation has been experienced. Fears are held for the survival of stands of certain eucalypt species and for catchment stability in heavily infested areas. In January 1961, the State Electricity Commission of Victoria carried out spraying of 6500 acres of rugged forest country (elevation 2000–4200) ft) in the catchment of its Kiewa Hydro-Electric Scheme in northeastern Victoria, using a Bristol Sycamore helicopter to disperse 5½ of “Malathion” in 3 gallons of light fuel oil per acre. The insecticide droplet size range was 150–250 microns. Spraying was carried out from 50 to 100 ft above tree-tops. Air photographs were used to divide the area into units requiring 7–10 loads (62.5 imperial gallons of spray per load) using easily recognizable topographic or man-made boundaries. A navigator travelled in the aircraft to assist the pilot. For accurate location of each swathe, reliance was placed on the judgment of the air crew. Each flight was observed and plotted by ground observers on specially prepared observation points. The high standard of accuracy of spraying achieved under difficult and rather hazardous conditions is attributed to the skill and application of the air crew.

Spraying ceased when oviposition commenced and the phasmatid egg parasite (Cresmophaga sp., Hymenoptera: Cleptidae) wa due to emerge. Frass drop measurements showed virtually complete eradication of the phasmatid population in an experimental area of 50 acres and observation showed that high mortality occurred over the whole of the treated area. By comparison adjoining unsprayed areas showed extensive defoliation. There was no evidence of mortality amongst wild-life, other than insects.

It is hoped that there will be no need for further spraying in the treated area: if no immigration from surrounding untreated areas occurs the drastically reduced population may be prevented from increasing to plague proportions by the combined action of unfavourable weather and natural enemies.

Improvements in techniques are recommended for future operations; for instance better control of droplet size and reduction in spray losses could considerably reduce the application rate.     

Nutrient concentrations in foliage,litter and soil in relation to wood production of 7- to 15-year-old Pinus radiata in Victoria,Australia

We report the changes in nutrient concentrations in unthinned stands of Pinus radiala aged 7, 11 and 15 years old planted across 11 soil types. Correlations between nutrients in foliage, litter and soil (0–20 cm and 20–40 cm) indicated that the links between the components increased with stand age for N and P. Litter weight on the forest floor was dependent upon standing wood volume, and the mass of nutrients in the litter, particularly N and Ca, increased concomitantly with wood volume. The litter layer provided a large pool of nutrients which was related to nutrient concentrations in the surface soil. Concentrations of N and P declined in foliage with age concomitantly with an increase in the amounts immobilized in litter. However, wood volume at age 15 years was positively correlated with foliar N and P concentrations, and the rate of decline in foliar N or P was not correlated directly with a decrease in the rate of wood production.     

REGENERATION BURNING WITH SEED TREES IN TWO BLACKBUTT (EUCALYPTUS PILULARIS Sm) FORESTS

Experimentation with regeneration burning on two contrasted blackbutt forests is described. The blackbutt forests on Fraser Island are developed on deep sands with little organic matter accumulation, and have a typically sclerophyllous understorey. Burning consistently resulted in excellent seedling establishment and survival. For optimum results timing may be varied within the period February to April depending on the maturity status of the available seed crop and on weather conditions.

Within the experimental area on Cooloolabin Forest, blackbutt occurs on a moderately heavy yellow podsolic soil with a much higher organic matter content, and away from the immediate environs of ridge crests a strong representation of rainfores: element species may be present. In a series of experimental burns, blackbutt seedling establishment largely failed on burnt sites but was recorded where soil had been heavily disturbed during site preparation.

The contrasted results on the two forests are discussed in terms of some recent concepts of the plant-soil relationship on eucalypt forest soils.     

Growth response following variable espacement of 28-year-old Alpine Ash regeneration in New South Wales

Analysis of stand growth-response patterns have shown that small increases in sawlog volume resulted from thinning fast grown, fire regenerated alpine ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis R.T. Bak.) from below to a range of regular tree-spacings, at age 28 years. No significant correlation was found between basal area growth response and increased spacing for four treatments that ranged from 3.7 m to 7.3 m.

Rapid natural stocking-attrition occurred in both thinned and unthinned stands during the 31 post-thinning years of measurement. Maximum density diagrams indicated that these alpine ash stands were fully-stocked at lower densities than have been recorded for many other forest species. As a consequence of the propensity to self-thin, little additional stand growth was gained from the thinning treatments. The 150 trees ha^?1 with the largest diameters from all thinned stands averaged a basal area increase of only 0.59 mha^?1 over the 31 year period of measurement (<0.2 mha^?1 yr^?1), when compared with the equivalent stratum from an unthinned stand.

However, the small average nett growth response to spacing was not distributed evenly across the largest 150 trees ha^?1 dbhob. The 50 largest diameter trees ha^?1 in spaced stands showed a significant (α = 0.05) positive response, the trees ranked 51 to 100 showed no significant response and those trees ranked 101 to 150 showed a significant (α = 0.05) negative response when compared with the corresponding strata in the unthinned stand, over the same period.

Thus the overall result of stand spacing on the largest 150 trees ha^?1 was a widening of the stand diameter distribution and a small overall gain in the merchantable volume. For sites of higher quality, the basal area response was larger and predominantly accrued to the largest 50 trees ha^?1.     

杭州市某区星级宾馆集中空调通风系统卫生状况调查

目的了解杭州市某区星级宾馆集中空调通风系统污染状况,为卫生管理提供科学依据。方法采用现场采样和检测方法,于2008-2011年每年夏秋季对某区三至五星级宾馆集中空调通风系统进行卫生学调查。结果该区星级宾馆房间室内空气中细菌总数平均超标率为5.6%,二氧化碳平均超标率到50.8%;集中空调送风中细菌总数平均超标率达到58.5%,真菌总数超标率也达到27.7%。该区星级宾馆集中空调系统冷却水和冷凝水中嗜肺军团杆菌平均检出率分别为42.2%和26.7%。结论该区星级宾馆空调通风系统卫生质量重要指标合格率偏低,嗜肺军团杆菌检出率较高,存在传播感染的风险。     

Costs Associated with Constraints on Harvesting Eucalypt Forests

The constraints imposed on harvesting so as to favour such non-wood values as soil characteristics, water quality, landscape, and wildlife give rise to costs that must be borne by one or another sector of the community. This paper estimates the costs associated with various levels of constraint in an Australian forest of indigenous species managed primarily for sawlogs by means of a clearfelling system, and indicates the distribution of these costs between sectors of the community.

The approach used is a “desk study” based on known cost relationships for various operations. Four strategies representing progressively increased levels of constraint are specified. Each involves aspects of roading, harvesting, regeneration, and general restoration. For each strategy the normative cost, expressed as $/m³ delivered to sawmill, is estimated for combinations of logging method (six) by slope class (three) by volume per unit area (continuum). Certain other logging methods were excluded on the grounds of infeasibility or extremely high cost.

Using Strategy 2 (common practice) and logging by crawler tractors of D6 size (generally the cheapest method) as the base, the percentage increase in cost occasioned by the implementation of Strategy 4 (the highest level of constraint considered) is estimated for various logging methods. The relative increase in cost borne by each of three groups—the forest owners (or managing agencies), the logging contractors, and the consumers of sawn timber—is also estimated. The increases occasioned by the adoption of Strategy 4 over all forests are as follows:

Forest Owners: 130% to 180%

Logging Contractors: 10% to 25%

Consumers: 8% to 12%

Some implications of these additional costs are discussed.     

STEM DISTRIBUTIONS IN IRREGULAR FORESTS

A study has been made in a number of blackbutt forests to determine the nature of variation in flowering and seeding characteristics of the species. In all stands the involucre of bracts surrounding the developing blackbutt inflorescence is shed during March and April. In the following year flowering occurs between April and October on Fraser Island and between September and March in most mainland stands, although isolated flowering may occur as early as July. Within an apparently homogeneous section of a blackbutt forest there may be a wide variation in flowering time.

A substantial seed cast with a well-defined peak occurs in the second summer after a heavy flowering on Fraser Island, and about one year after flowering in mainland stands. Where flowering has been light there may be no clearly defined seeding peak, but rather a series of small peaks which are possibly influenced by varying climatic conditions. Within the limited study period a considerable difference in pattern of seed fall between most stands was observed. The percentage of viable seed cast is at a maximum in the first six months following initiation of cast, e.g. 6–8%, and subsequently the viability may fall to a particularly low level, e.g. 1%.

Variation in flowering and seeding is discussed in terms of the widely heterogeneous nature of blackbutt's genetic makeup.     

Early impacts of disturbance on lichens,mosses and liverworts in Tasmania’s wet eucalypt production forests

The impacts of silvicultural disturbance (felling and burning) on lichens, mosses and liverworts in Eucalyptus obliqua-dominated wet forest in Tasmania were investigated. The study was based on presence–absence data for 452 taxa from 52 sampling events, spanning unlogged forest and disturbed, regenerating forest about 1, 3 and 5 years after disturbance. Three aspects of species composition were compared: total species richness, occurrence of pre-disturbance species in the post-disturbance flora and relative richness of ecological groups in the flora. Total species richness was the least reliable measure for evaluating changes due to disturbance.

Felling and burning in different combinations were represented in a range of silvicultural treatments applied in the study area. They produced different levels of disturbance and different microhabitats, and thereby defined the character of the cryptogamic flora. The most severe impacts occurred at burnt sites, regardless of whether the forest had been felled or not, and the least impact was found in standing, unburnt forest.

The consequences of severe disturbance were a substantial change in species composition, with a reduction, in particular, of mature wet forest species in favour of species associated with disturbance or brightly lit, exposed environments. In the lichens, the loss of old tree indicators, old forest indicators, foliicolous species, rare species of conservation significance and species indicative of a succession towards cool temperate rainforest was especially severe. Mosses and liverworts also showed a very pronounced loss of mature wet forest species. In the mosses, the presence of newcomers, represented mostly by disturbance species or species typical of open drier conditions, masked the extent of these losses. In the liverworts, there were few newcomers and the composition of the post-disturbance flora was much depleted.     

平度市农村地区成年人口腔健康状况调查

目的了解平度农村地区40岁以上人群口腔健康状况。方法采取分层、系统抽样的方法选取调查对象,按男女性别和年龄分组（每5岁为1组）,进行问卷调查和口腔检查,包括刷牙习惯、牙列状况、修复状况以及缺失原因,分析不同性别和年龄段的刷牙习惯、龋失补均数（DMFT）和牙齿缺失原因。结果共调查772例,DMFT随年龄递增,40-45岁组最少（5.46±3.95）,65岁以上组最多（18.59±10.07）,40-45、46-50和65以上年龄组男女性别间比较差异有显著性（t=2.12-3.66,P〈0.05）。各年龄组缺失牙占DMFT的大部分（62.5%-94.7%）。龋损占牙齿缺失原因的53.0%以上。在65岁以下各年龄段人群中,每天刷牙1次的人数占41.1%-53.7%,而65岁以上的老年人几乎不刷牙者占46.2%。结论平度市农村地区成年人DMFT较高,缺牙因素主要为龋损,口腔卫生习惯有待改善。     

MINOR ELEMENTS AND THE PINE

The growth of Pinus radiata at Ludlow, W.A., suffering from a disorder known as “resetting” has been stimulated by the injection of manganese sulphate, ferrous sulphate, cobalt chloride, nickel chloride, sodium molybdate and boracic acid, as well as by zinc.