维生素D与成年人骨酪健康应用指南（2014年标准版）

维生素D对人体健康产生广泛作用,维生素D缺乏症（Vitamin D deficiency)可能会导致骨质疏松症进展、跌倒和骨折; 同时,在西方国家出现了不一致维生素D标准和实践方案。鉴于此,中国老年学会骨质疏松委员会相关专业人员,制定了《维 生素D与成年人骨骼健康应用指南》。该《指南》分为《简化版》和《标准版》,主要证据来源于2013年英国骨质疏松学会指 南、2011年美国健康研究院报告,以及国内文献。该指南适用于成年人骨骼疾病,或有骨病风险患者的维生素D缺乏症管理。 需说明,该指南不针对儿童期、妊娠期、以及患有严重或终末期慢性肾脏病(4 ~5期）的人群。该指南《标准版》在本刊巳发表 《简化版》的基础上进一步详述,相关内容包括中国成年人群维生素D阈值设定、维生素D状况评价、25Oro测量值解释、维 生素D缺乏症治疗和监测的详细计划、预防战略等。     

补充钙和维生素D防治骨质疏松症的全球临床指南进展

补充钙和维生素D防治骨质疏松症一直是全球权威学术机构临床指南的基本策略。然而,近来一些研究对过量补充钙和维生素D的健康骨骼益处提出不同的观点,从而干扰了国际公认的防治骨质疏松症的基本策略,混淆了临床医师的视听。因此,笔者综述近几年来中国、美国、加拿大、英国、波兰、日本、韩国等权威学术机构的临床指南的观点,重点介绍骨质疏松症的发病机制和病理生理学关注的骨重建的主要局部调节剂[受体激活剂核因子kb(RANK)及其配体RANKL和诱饵受体骨保护素(OPG);罗列各国为防治骨质疏松症推荐的钙和维生素D摄入量;联合补充钙和维生素D有利于防治骨质疏松症和骨质疏松性骨折;分析补充钙和维生素D的健康骨骼争议,一般健康人每天服用钙补充剂不应该超过1000 mg。特别是基于亚洲人(中国人、日本人、韩国人)的膳食钙摄入量、血脂水平、身体体重指数(BMI)和维生素D营养状况,参考中国、日本、韩国的补充钙和维生素D防治骨质疏松症的临床指南,提出钙和维生素D补充的方法:每日一次服用碳酸钙和维生素D3补充剂的剂量以元素钙500~600 mg和维生素D3200 IU为宜,比较适合中国成年人群预防骨质疏松症。如果需要补充更多剂量的钙和维生素D,必须分成多次服用。这些信息供我国临床医师参考使用。     

现代社会维生素D缺乏及其预防

维生素D缺乏是目前社会所面临的严重健康问题。维生素D(VD)是人体不可缺少的一种脂溶性维生素,其主要作用是增加肠钙的吸收利用,对维持各年龄段骨骼健康矿化都起着非常重要的作用。维生素D缺乏在儿童导致佝偻病;在成年人会发生软骨病和骨质疏松。此外近年来发现维生素D缺乏还与肿瘤、糖尿病、心血管疾病等多种疾病的发生有关,使其重新引起了人们的关注。造成现代社会维生素D缺乏的原因是多方面的,主要是由于各种原因导致的阳光照射不足。血中的25(OH)D的水平可以作为了解人体内VD状况的指标,多数学者认为25(OH)D的水平低于30ng/mL为维生素D不足,现代社会维生素D缺乏发生率非常高,推测全球可能有10亿人口患有维生素D缺乏。合理补充维生素D对预防维生素D缺乏是非常重要的。     

孕期VD缺乏以及对胎儿的影响

维生素D缺乏是目前社会所面临的严重健康问题。维生素D的主要作用是增加肠钙的吸收,对维持各年龄段骨骼健康矿化都起着非常重要的作用。维生素D缺乏在儿童导致佝偻病;在成年人会发生软骨病和骨质疏松。近年来发现除了传统的骨骼系统的作用外,维生素D缺乏还与多种疾病的发生有关。VD缺乏累及的人群非常广泛,可以发生在各个年龄阶段,特别是孕妇。造成孕期维生素D缺乏的主要原因是多方面的,主要是由于各种原因导致的阳光照射不足以及孕期VD的需求量增加所致。孕妇VD缺乏可能与胎儿及新生儿的多种不良状况有关,如影响胎儿及新生儿骨骼系统和大脑的发育,还可能与心脏疾病和I型糖尿病等的发生有关。因此,合理补充维生素D,预防孕期VD缺乏对提高产科质量以及母婴保健是非常重要的。     

维生素D缺乏相关性疾病研究进展

维生素D是人体必需的一种脂溶性维生素,它通过维生素D受体发挥其主要作用。近10年人们对于维生素D的关注度越来越高。根据流行病学调查,目前全球近10亿人处于维生素D不足或缺乏状态,我国人群维生素D不足现象也较为普遍。由于1,25-羟维生素D半衰期非常短,最近维生素D水平已用血清25-羟维生素D水平来描述。多种证据表明,维生素D缺乏不仅造成骨骼疾病(包括营养性佝偻病、软骨病、骨质疏松),还与多种骨骼外疾病密切相关,包括全因死亡率、心血管疾病及心血管病死亡率、代谢综合征(肥胖、糖耐量减低/糖尿病、脂代谢紊乱、高血压)、恶性肿瘤、感染、过敏性疾病及哮喘、精神及神经疾病、自身免疫性疾病、慢性肾病等。虽然使用维生素D治疗骨骼疾病已经得到广泛认可,但是治疗骨骼外疾病的疗效及远期效果还不明确。维生素D缺乏已成为全世界的公共健康问题。本文综述了近年来对维生素D缺乏相关性疾病的研究进展。     

骨质疏松性骨折围手术期的药物治疗

骨质疏松性骨折是一个全球性的骨骼健康问题,患病人群广泛且早期症状隐伏,严重危害老年人群的健康,骨折是其最严重的并发症。骨质疏松性骨折手术治疗难度大,疗效常不令人满意,因此,在积极手术治疗骨折的同时,一定要重视骨质疏松的药物治疗。骨质疏松性骨折围手术期使用抗骨吸收,以及补充活性维生素D3和钙剂,可以为骨质疏松性骨折进行各种手术准备较好的骨质基础,同时促进骨愈合,预防再次骨折的发生。本文针对骨质疏松性骨折围手术期的药物治疗进行讨论。     

重要维生素的摄入与中老年骨健康

研究结果清楚地表明,营养治疗在骨质疏松症的评估和管理方面占据了中心地位.老年人通常存在的营养不良可能是导致骨质疏松发病的一个重要风险因素,微营养素缺乏能加速年龄相关的骨质流失.维生素是被证实在维持骨骼健康方面发挥重要作用的营养物质之一.本文综述了5种重要的维生素(A、C、D、E和K)对骨骼健康的益处,定期或每天摄入富含维生素的膳食或补充剂有利于中老年人骨质疏松的预防和治疗.     

绝经后女性骨密度与维生素D和高密度脂蛋白水平相关性研究

目的探索绝经后妇女血清维生素D水平与高密度脂蛋白(high-density lipoprotein,HDL)和骨密度(bone mineral density,BMD)之间的关系。方法 2015年1月至2018年2月在我院病房及门诊就诊的244名绝经后妇女参加了这项横断面研究,她们都没有服用骨质疏松药物,也没有患任何慢性疾病。采用双能X射线吸收测定法用于评估髋部、股骨颈和腰椎(L_(1～4))的BMD。每个人根据世界卫生组织骨质疏松症标准在至少一个骨骼区域进行分类。在数据收集结束时,测量所有参与者的血脂谱和维生素D水平。维生素D血清水平低于30 ng/mL被定义为维生素D缺乏或不足。结果 27.9%的参与者表现出骨质疏松症。骨质疏松患者的HDL血清水平更高(P0.05)。参与者的低密度脂蛋白、总甘油三酯和总胆固醇水平差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。在未调整年龄、绝经年龄、肥胖和使用抗高血脂药物(他汀类药物)后,HDL水平与腰椎(1～4)、髋部和股骨颈的BMD值和T评分呈显著负相关(P0.05)。在根据维生素D水平对参与者进行分类以及调整混杂因素之后,仅在维生素D缺乏或不足的参与者中观察到HDL水平与三部位的BMD值以及T评分之间呈显著负相关(P0.05)。结论在维生素D缺乏的绝经后妇女中,血清HDL水平与骨骼状态呈负相关。     

维生素D与人体健康

讨论生命元素维生素D( VUD)与健康的关系,维生素D普遍缺乏。随着科学发展,对维生素D (VUD)及其活性形式——活性维生素D( AVD)在骨骼健康、心血管疾病、肿瘤、糖尿病、孕期保健、小 儿佝偻病等益处不断被发现。本文对其进行讨论,并附上我科近3年对活性维生素D( AVD)检测情 况的报告。     

非骨质疏松骨折围手术期血清维生素D水平影响因素分析

目的测定非骨质疏松骨折围手术期血清25羟基维生素D[25-(OH)-Vit D]水平并对其相关影响因素进行分析。方法研究选取2013年8月至2015年11月在大连医科大学附属第一医院创伤骨科住院的急性非骨质疏松骨折手术患者85例作为非骨质疏松骨折手术组,其中男性58例,女性27例;年龄18~50岁,平均(36±10)岁;同期选取门诊健康体检者90例作为健康对照组,其中男性60例,女性30例,年龄18~50岁,平均(35±9)岁。创伤严重程度根据AIS评分(简明损伤评分)标准,1分11例,2分25例,3分21例,4分13例,5分15例。所有患者均于入院后第1天、手术后拔出引流管当天采集晨空腹静脉血样分别测定血清25-(OH)-Vit D水平和血红蛋白(Hb)含量,统计术中出血量及术后引流量。通过统计学方法分析创伤严重程度、Hb含量、术中出血量等对骨折围手术期血清维生素D水平的影响。结果 (1)非骨质疏松骨折手术组比健康对照组血清25-(OH)-Vit D水平较低,差异具有统计学意义(t=15.43,P0.05),骨质疏松骨折手术组比健康对照组低42.8%;(2)创伤严重程度对伤后维生素D水平影响:各组间总体比较显示损伤越重伤后血清25-(OH)-Vit D水平越低,差异有统计学意义(F=4.78,P0.05),AIS 5分组比AIS 1分血清25-(OH)-Vit D水平低57.6%;(3)伤后Hb含量与维生素D水平的影响:伤后Hb含量越低血清25-(OH)-Vit D水平越低,差异具有统计学意义(F=39.2,P0.05),中重度贫血组比正常组血清25-(OH)-Vit D水平低73.5%;(4)围手术期总出血量对围手术期维生素D变化的影响:总出血量不同5组患者的血清25-(OH)-Vit D水平降低程度总体比较,差异有统计学意义(P0.05),且400 ml≤总出血量600 ml时,血清25-(OH)-Vit D降低程度最大,下降35.7%。结论非骨质疏松骨折围手术期血清25-(OH)-Vit D水平与创伤严重程度及出血量有关,骨折发生后应及时有效补充足量维生素D。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.