Techniques of wrist arthroscopy

Wrist arthroscopy is a promising new technique for the evaluation of wrist pain or dysfunction. Cadaveric wrist specimens were used to devise safe and advantageous entry portals for arthroscopy and to establish respective advantages for each portal. Thirty-five clinical cases were used to correlate the laboratory experience and to refine a reproducible surgical technique. Seven portals are useful: five in the radiocarpal interval, one in the midcarpal area, and one in the distal radioulnar joint space. Detailed wrist anatomy is reviewed in this paper and must be thoroughly understood to interpret arthroscopic views. Blunt subcutaneous dissection protects cutaneous nerve branches at the various portals. Intraoperative photographs illustrate the excellent perspectives achieved using these techniques.     

腕关节镜掌侧和背侧联合入路的临床应用及效果

目的 介绍一种腕关节镜掌侧入路建立的新方法,报道使用掌侧和背侧联合入路对腕部疾患诊断和治疗的体会.方法 采用"由内向外的交换棒技术"和"由外向内的浅切开深分离"相结合技术建立腕关节镜掌侧入路.自2004年起,通过掌侧和背侧联合入路,进行11例腕部疾患的腕关节镜手术;三角纤维软骨复合体损伤3例(根据Palmer分型,2A型2例,2C型1例),桡骨远端骨折合并韧带损伤5例(根据AO分型,B1型2例,C3型3例),痛风性关节炎3例.男5例,女6例;年龄30～82岁,平均52岁.对所有病例进行随访观察,了解手术的并发症和治疗效果.结果 通过掌侧入路,成功地观察到腕关节的背侧结构,诊断损伤,并能在镜下施行清理和骨折复位手术.所有病例腕关节活动度得以恢复,疼痛有明显缓解,术后腕关节患者自行评估量表(patient-rated wrist evaluation,PRWE)评分为28.6±9.3.术后3～6个月随访显示无手术相关并发症.结论 通过新技术进行腕关节镜掌侧和背侧联合入路手术,安全可行,是腕部疾患诊疗的一种有效方法.     

Dry Wrist Arthroscopy: Technique and Rationale

Wrist arthroscopy has been established as a useful, minimally invasive tool for diagnosing and treating many different wrist conditions. The standard portals are located on the dorsum of the hand and wrist and are named for their relation to the extensor compartments. They include the radiocarpal and midcarpal portals. The radiocarpal portals are 3-4, 4-5, 6R, 6U, and 1-2. The midcarpal portals are STT (scaphotrapeziotrapezoidal), MCR (midcarpal radial), and MCU (midcarpal ulnar). Traditionally, wrist arthroscopy is performed with constant inflow of saline solution for joint insufflation and visualization. Dry wrist arthroscopy (DWA) is a technique that allows for arthroscopic exploration and instrumentation without infusing any fluid into the joints. Some advantages of DWA include lack of fluid extravasation, less obstruction by floating synovial villi, decreased risk of compartment syndrome, and the ability to perform concomitant open procedures more easily than with a wet technique. Additionally, the risk of fluid displacing carefully laid bone graft is much less without constant flow. DWA can be used in the assessment and management of triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) and scapholunate interosseous ligament tears and other ligamentous injuries. DWA can also be used in fracture fixation to assist with reduction and restoration of articular surfaces. Moreover, it is used in more chronic settings to diagnose scaphoid nonunions. DWA does have its disadvantages such as generation of heat through the use of burrs and shavers and clogging of these instruments during debridement of tissue. DWA is a technique that can be used to manage multiple orthopaedic conditions including soft-tissue and osseous injuries. With a minimal learning curve for surgeons who already perform wrist arthroscopy, DWA can be a useful addition to their practice.     

腕关节镜视下治疗三角纤维软骨复合体损伤

目的 总结应用腕关节镜技术诊断并治疗40例单纯三角纤维软骨复合体(TFCC)损伤的经验.方法 40例患者中男24例,女16例;平均年龄37.3岁.应用常规腕关节镜入路和器械对桡腕关节和腕中关节进行检查,对TFCC损伤的诊断采用Palmer分型,腕关节镜视下诊断为TFCC Ⅰ型损伤30例、Ⅱ型损伤10例.明确诊断后对TFCCⅠ A、ⅠD型行清创术;ⅠB、ⅠC型行镜下修复术;TFCCⅡ型损伤行清创术;对有尺骨撞击的TFCCⅡC和ⅡD型损伤行关节镜下尺骨头部分磨除术(Wafer术)治疗.术前和术后随访评定采用改良Mayo腕关节功能评分.结果 镜下TFCC清创及修复术均顺利;术后有1例患者出现环指主动背伸不能(后经手术探查为环指指伸肌腱断裂),余患者均无并发症;平均随访时间为11.6个月.经改良Mayo腕关节功能评分:优21例,良13例,可5例,差1例;优良率为85.0％,患者自我满意率为97.5％.结论 应用腕关节镜技术诊断并治疗TFCC损伤安全有效,随访效果确切可靠,值得推广应用.     

Complications of wrist arthroscopy

PURPOSE: To determine the incidence and nature of complications after arthroscopy of the wrist joint. METHODS: The outpatient records and surgical reports of 211 patients who had wrist joint arthroscopy were reviewed to determine type of procedure, type of anesthetic, portals used, and incidence and nature of postsurgical complications. RESULTS: We identified a total of 11 complications in our patient group (5.2%). Of these, 2 patients (0.9%) developed major complications and 9 patients (4.3%) developed minor complications. Five complications 45% were identified in the immediate postsurgical period and 6 (55%) were delayed complications. All of the minor complications resolved at latest follow-up evaluation with conservative care. CONCLUSIONS: Wrist arthroscopy is a safe procedure with a low rate of major and minor complications. In spite of its limitations wrist arthroscopy remains an invaluable tool in the diagnosis and treatment of wrist joint disorders.     

Visualisation of the pisotriquetral joint through standard portals for arthroscopy of the wrist: a clinical and anatomical study

Disorders of the pisotriquetral joint are well recognised as the cause of pain on the ulnar side of the wrist. The joint is not usually examined during routine arthroscopy because it is assumed to have a separate joint cavity to the radiocarpal joint, although there is often a connection between the two. We explored this connection during arthroscopy and in fresh-frozen cadaver wrists and found that in about half of the cases the pisotriquetral joint could be visualised through standard wrist portals. Four different types of connection were observed between the radiocarpal joint and the pisotriquetral joint. They ranged from a complete membrane separating the two, to no membrane at all, with various other types of connection in between. We recommend that inspection of the pisotriquetral joint should be a part of the protocol for routine arthroscopy of the wrist.     

腕关节镜掌侧入路的实验与临床研究

目的 报告腕关节镜掌侧入路的设计及初步应用结果.方法 腕关节镜掌桡侧入路定位在桡侧腕屈肌腱桡侧与舟骨结节交界处,掌尺侧入路定位在尺侧腕屈肌腱的尺侧缘、豌豆骨近侧0.5 cm处.对20具防腐腕关节以上离断标本进行解剖学研究,5具新鲜腕关节以上离断标本进行模拟镜下手术.2004年4月至2008年1月,共进行腕关节镜掌侧入路手术20例.男8例,女12例;年龄21～64岁,平均35.6岁.结果 掌侧入路与其周围的血管、神经等结构均有一定的安全距离.掌侧入路镜检可以清晰显示背侧关节囊、舟月骨间韧带的掌侧部分和月三角骨间韧带的掌侧部分.通过掌侧入路置入关节镜,背侧入路置入手术器械,可以更方便地处理腕关节腔背侧部分的病变.20例临床病例均未发生并发症,平均随访23.4(12～37)个月.末次随访时,腕关节背伸-掌屈活动度为134°±16°,桡尺偏活动度为39°±8°,旋前-旋后活动度为139°±18°.术前有2例疼痛为Ⅱ级,18例疼痛为Ⅲ级;末次随访时,11例疼痛为Ⅰ级,8例为Ⅱ级,1例为Ⅲ级;疼痛缓解显著(Z=31.2,P＜0.01).改良Garland和Werley评分为:优10例,良6例,可4例,优良率为80%.结论 腕关节镜掌侧入路是传统背侧入路的重要补充,具有安全性高、操作方便的优点.     

Distal radioulnar joint arthroscopy and the volar ulnar portal

Pain on the ulnar side of the wrist remains poorly understood. As attention has shifted toward the myriad causes of ulnar-sided wrist pain, the utility of viewing the wrist from a volar ulnar (VU) perspective has emerged. Lunotriquetral ligament tears have been implicated in the pathogenesis of volar intercalated segmental instabilities. They often originate in the palmar subregion, which is most important for maintaining stability. These tears are difficult to visualize through the 4, 5, or 6R portals. They are well seen through a VU portal, and the direct line of sight facilitates debridement. The VU portal has potential use in the arthroscopic diagnosis and treatment of patients with injuries to the ulnar sling mechanism. It aids in triangular fibrocartilage repairs especially those involving the dorsal aspect between the ulnar styloid and the radial insertion, because the proximity of the 4, 5, and 6R portals makes triangulation of the instruments difficult. Although arthroscopy of the dorsal aspect of the distal radioulnar joint has been well described, it has largely remained a curiosity, with few clinical indications. Recent biomechanical studies have highlighted the importance of the deep attachment of the triangular fibrocartilage complex in maintaining distal radioulnar joint stability. The volar distal radioulnar portal is useful for assessing the foveal attachment. It may be used where there is the suspicion of a peripheral triangular fibrocartilage detachment due to a loss of its normal tension despite the lack of a visible tear during radiocarpal arthroscopy. The judicious use of these portals deserves consideration for inclusion as part of a thorough arthroscopic examination of selected patients with ulnar-sided wrist pain.     

Hip arthroscopy. Portal technique and arthroscopic anatomy

In hip arthroscopy everything revolves around entry points. Only with a precise entry technique are safety and efficiency guaranteed. Most pathological changes of the hip for which an arthroscopic intervention can be used are located in the central compartment: two lateral (anterolateral and posterolateral) and one anterior portal are the three standard portals allowing an optimal approach to practically all pathological changes in this compartment.Significant diseases and lesions can occur in the peripheral compartment which would be overlooked by arthroscopy of the central compartment. Two portals are needed for arthroscopy of the periparal compartment: the anterolateral, as well as one distally, converging on the ventral neck of the thigh.Hip arthroscopy is undergoing continual development, however, there are still major requirements for clarification of the pathology and pathomechanisms of injuries and diseases of the this joint.     

Therapeutic interest of wrist arthroscopy: about 1000 cases

Wrist arthroscopy is a relatively recent procedure because it was described in the 70's. During the first period of 80's it became an indisputable technique of diagnosis. Since the 90's many therapeutic procedure were described by several authors all over the world. This technique increase a lot the understanding of wrist pathologies and ameliorate significantly the results for patients. We report our experience about 1000 wrist arthroscopy between 1998 and 2005. The patients were always operated on outpatient basis under local regional anaesthesiology. The arm was laid on the table and the hand on in-line traction (5-7 kg). We used a 2.4 mm arthroscope, 30 degree angled. The both joints, radiocarpal and midcarpal, were systematically explored. The small portals were not closed. In our experience, only 42 arthroscopies (4%) were without surgical procedure. We separated the indications in 7 chapters: (1) arthoscopic assistance for fractures treatment (distal radius and scaphoid: 7%; (2) TFCC tears (17%); (3) treatment of intrinsic ligaments tears (scapholunate and lunotriquetral: 21%); (4) ectomy (radial styloidectomy, wafer, carpal boss 13%); (5) resection of wrist ganglia (21%); (6) partial prosthesis (2.5%); (7) others techniques (arthrolysis, synovectomy 14.5%).     

A comparison of the findings of wrist arthroscopy and magnetic resonance imaging in the investigation of wrist pain

Between 1996 and 1999, 54 patients with wrist pain had magnetic resonance imaging performed using a 1.5 Tesla scanner without a wrist coil. Wrist arthroscopy was performed using a standard technique. The findings were then compared. Magnetic resonance imaging had a low sensitivity for the detection of triangular fibrocartilage complex injuries (0.44) and scapholunate ligament injuries (0.11) when wrist arthroscopy was used as the standard of reference.We conclude that when a magnetoresonance technique that does not employ a dedicated wrist coil is used, a negative magnetic resonance imaging scan does not exclude these two significant injuries.     

Incidence and causes of failures in wrist arthroscopic techniques

OBJECTIVES: Arthroscopy represents a new and promising technique for the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the wrist. Causes predis posing to clinical failure can arise during any phase of the approach to a patient who is a candidate for arthroscopic treatment. The author examine the causes of failure during pre-operative diagnostic workup, operative procedure and post-operative rehabilitation program and discus how to prevent them. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Three hundred fifty outpatients who had wrist arthroscopy were reviewed to determine type of procedure, type of anaesthetic, portals used and incidence and nature of preoperative, operative, and postoperative complications. Complications were divided in two groups: major and minor. The first group consists of isolated or combined vascular, nerve and/or tendon injuries, compartment syndrome joint infection and RSD, wrist rigidity. The second group includes transient superficial dorsal ulnar sensory neurapraxia, superficial portal sit infection, skin burns, tendonitis, instrumentation breaking inside the wrist joint, ganglion formation, haematomas. In a separate group othe causes of failure, especially those due to surgical or rehabilitation failures, are considered. RESULTS: Ten cases of surgical and post-surgical complications (2,9%) and 8 other cases of failure considered separately (2,3%) were identified, making a total of 18 cases of clinical failure (5,1%). Among these complications 4 cases were classified as "major" [sensory nerve branch lesions of ulnar nerve (3 cases) and of radial nerve (1 case)] and 6 cases were classified as "minor" [sensory neurapraxia (3 cases), instrumentation breakage (1 case), ganglion formation (1 case), a large subcutaneous haematoma (1 case)]. CONCLUSIONS: Wrist arthroscopy is a sophisticated procedure, requiring dedicated surgical training and a thorough knowledge of joint disorders in order to lower the risks of complications and surgical failures.     

Ankle anatomy for the arthroscopist. Part I: The portals

Proper portal placement is critical to performing good diagnostic and therapeutic arthroscopy. When the portals are positioned improperly, visualization can be impaired, making diagnosis and treatment more difficult. Three main anterior portals are available in arthroscopy of the ankle: anteromedial, anterolateral, and anterocentral. Posterior portals are also routinely used in ankle arthroscopy and can be established at a posterolateral or posteromedial position or directly through the Achilles tendon. Because of the potential for serious complications, the anterocentral and transAchilles portals are no longer used. Other portals have been described to obtain more complete access, particularly to the posterior compartment of the ankle joint. This work reviews the relationships that exist between the most important anatomic structures and arthroscopic portals of the ankle.     

Clinical applications of volar portals in wrist arthroscopy

Volar portals for wrist arthroscopy have certain advantages over the standard dorsal portals for visualizing dorsal capsular structures as well as the palmar aspects of the carpal ligaments. The volar radial portal is relatively easy to use and is an ideal portal for evaluation of the dorsal radiocarpal ligament and the palmar aspect of the scapholunate interosseous ligament. The volar midcarpal portal may be considered as an occasional accessory portal for visualizing the palmar aspects of the capitate and hamate in cases of avascular necrosis or osteochondral fractures. The volar ulnar portal is especially useful for the viewing and debridement of palmar tears of the lunotriquetral ligament.     

"Retrospectoscopic" arthroscopy

Examination of the posterior compartments through posterior portals was recommended in 1974, and since then surgical techniques with arthroscopes and instruments in posterior portals have been described. Use of the 120 degrees arthroscope for the last 9 years has proven the merit of those recommendations. We consider arthroscopy to be incomplete without examination of the posterior compartments. The examination is possible with standard scopes in posterior portals, but it is easier, quicker, safer, and more complete using the technique described with the 120 degrees scope in an anterior portal. The 120 degrees arthroscope is helpful in diagnostic and operative arthroscopy. It permits comprehensive arthroscopy without additional punctures, and allows the use of surgical instruments without the arthroscope itself getting in the way. Although it is difficult to learn the technique, we believe the benefit is worth the effort, and recommend its routine use.     

Arthroscopy of the proximal interphalangeal joints of the finger

Cadaveric studies were carried out to evaluate the technique, portals and possible indications for arthroscopy of the proximal interphalangeal joints of the finger. We suggest horizontal placement of the hand instead of using a traction tower, as it is important to be able to flex the joint freely. The recommended arthroscopic portals are either between the central slip and the lateral bands of the extensor mechanism or between the lateral band and the collateral ligament. A blunt technique of introduction is used to avoid iatrogenic cartilage damage and possible digital nerve injury.     

Elbow Arthroscopy Made Simple: Indications and Techniques

Elbow arthroscopy is a technically demanding procedure. A comprehensive understanding of the elbow neurovascular anatomy combined with a very detail-oriented technique for portal placement helps to minimize risk and facilitates performing elbow arthroscopic procedures effectively and safely for the appropriate indications. The technique for establishing all portals is critical regardless of which portals are used. Care should be taken to thoroughly palpate the bony landmarks before establishing any portal site, and only blunt trocars should be used for elbow arthroscopy. Identification of the ulnar nerve is critical to avoid nerve injuries. In addition, only the skin should be incised, with a hemostat used to dissect through deeper tissues, in an effort to protect the superficial nerves. Likewise, although accurately measuring distances from the bony landmarks is important when planning portal-site locations, elbow sizes and shapes are highly variable. Therefore, recognition of an individual patient's body size and habitus is a key step before establishing portals. The use of anterior proximal portals also allows for improved visualization of anterior structures in a safe manner (distant from nerves). Finally, insufflating the elbow joint before establishing the initial anterior compartment portal has been reported to increase the distances of the nerves from the portal-site cannulas. An additional reason to consider insufflating the joint before portal placement is that insufflation increases anterior capsular tension, making penetration of the capsule with the blunt trocars easier and more reliable. In summary, elbow arthroscopy is a reliable procedure that requires a clear understanding of the anatomy to be able to safely access the joint.     

The volar portal in wrist arthroscopy

Wrist arthroscopy is not only a diagnostic tool; it has also developed into a valuable treatment alternative for several wrist disorders. All of the standard portals are dorsally located, leaving the dorsal sector of the radiocarpal and midcarpal joint partially invisible. A volar portal has been developed through the bed of the flexor carpi radialis tendon, thus expanding the therapeutic possibilities. We report our personal experience with the use of a volar portal in 28 of 206 (14%) wrist arthroscopies. No technical problems or neurovascular complications were encountered. We think the standardized approach as described is valuable and safe.     

Midcarpal arthroscopy: anatomy and technique.

Wrist arthroscopy has had a dramatic impact in both evaluation and treatment of a variety of wrist problems. Wrist arthroscopy has typically meant arthroscopy of the proximal wrist joint; however, midcarpal joint arthroscopy is becoming a routine part of a complete arthroscopic examination of the wrist. Specific indications, pertinent anatomy, and a clear technique for performing a midcarpal arthroscopy is not well documented in the literature. This article attempts to offer some insight on these issues.     

Chronic wrist pain: indications for wrist arthroscopy

Although arthroscopy represents a new and dynamic diagnostic technique for evaluating the wrist, specific indications for arthroscopic intervention in the wrist are not defined. To place this technique in perspective, we review our experience with 54 consecutive arthroscopies of the radiocarpal and midcarpal joints in 53 patients with chronic wrist pain. On the basis of this review, we believe arthroscopy is indicated for the diagnosis of wrist pain of longer than 3 months' duration. Defects of the triangular fibrocartilage and lesions of the articular cartilage, including loose bodies, are detectable and easily treated with wrist arthroscopy.