Are parenting style and controlling feeding practices related?

This study examined the relationships between parenting styles, feeding practices and BMI in a non-clinical sample of mothers and fathers of UK preschool children. Ninety-six cohabiting parents of 48 children (19 male, 29 female, mean age 42 months) completed a series of self-report questionnaires assessing parenting style, feeding practices, eating psychopathology and a range of demographic information. There were no relationships between authoritarian parenting and controlling feeding practices. In both mothers and fathers, permissive parenting style was related to lower monitoring of children's unhealthy food intake. Permissive parenting was also associated with increased use of restriction by mothers and pressure to eat by fathers. Authoritative parenting style was also related to lower use of pressure to eat by fathers only. Parenting styles were not related to child BMI in this sample. Higher child BMI was best predicted by lower paternal application of pressure to eat and greater paternal reports of drive for thinness. Parenting style may not have a direct impact on child BMI until child food selection and consumption becomes more autonomous.     

Permissive parental feeding behavior is associated with an increase in intake of low-nutrient-dense foods among American children living in rural communities

Parents play an important role in shaping children's eating habits. Few studies have evaluated the influence of both parenting style and parenting practices on child outcomes such as dietary intake. During spring 2007, 99 parent-child dyads from four rural US areas participated in this cross-sectional study. Child food intake was reported during two interviewer-administered, parent-assisted 24-hour recalls. Diet quality was defined as the average number of low-nutrient-dense (LND) foods consumed. Validated questionnaires were used to assess parental feeding practices and feeding style. Pearson correlations identified relationships among child food intake, parental feeding style typologies, and covariates. Regression analyses were used to predict child diet quality. Sixty percent of children and 76% of parents were overweight or obese. A permissive feeding style, which is highly responsive to a child's requests and sets few demands on him or her, was the most common (n=37) parental feeding style. This feeding style was associated with child intake of LND foods (r=0.3; P<0.001) and moderated the relationship between parental feeding practices and child intake of LND foods. In the presence of a permissive feeding style, higher levels of monitoring were associated with child intake of LND foods (β=.69; P<0.05). Parental feeding style may alter the effectiveness of parental feeding practices on children's food intake. More research is needed to understand the parent-child feeding relationship in the context of parental feeding styles and practices.     

Accuracy of self-reports of food intake in obese and normal-weight individuals: effects of parental obesity on reports of children's dietary intake

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the accuracy of dietary-intake information of normal-weight vs overweight parents in their reports of their children's food intake. Subjects were 36 families with either normal-weight (n = 20) or overweight (n = 16) children aged 4-9 y. Unobtrusive observers recorded the types and amounts of food eaten by the children at one meal. The next day families were visited in their homes and were asked to provide dietary-intake information from the previous day on their child. Results indicated that parental reports of the dietary intake of their children correlated significantly with the observers' measures of food intake. Neither the father's, the mother's, nor the family's obesity status had an effect on the accuracy of recalled information. The results indicated that the lack of differences consistently observed in dietary intake between obese and normal-weight children could not be explained by differential accuracy of recalled dietary information.     

Factors related to obesity in preschool children

The purpose of this research was to examine the following variables for their relationship to the prevalence of preschool obesity: familial aggregation of obesity, infant feeding practices, socioeconomic status, and parents' attitudes toward the use of food for non-nutritive purposes. Parents completed a biographical data form. Height, weight, and skinfold measurements were obtained from 94 preschool children and their biological parents. Both parents answered a Child Feeding Opinion Questionnaire. Anthropometric measurements were evaluated using percentile rankings from NHANES. On the assumption that subjects over the 75th percentile for triceps skinfold were overweight and those above the 90th percentile were obese, 23.4% and 7.5% of the children, 9.6% and 5.3% of the mothers, and 29.8% and 10.6% of the fathers were overweight or obese, respectively. Most parent-child anthropometric correlations were statistically significant. No statistically significant relationships were found between infant feeding practices and childhood obesity. Mothers' educational level varied inversely with the children's weight for height. Mothers and fathers opposed the use of food for reward, punishment, soothing, or affection. The parents' child feeding attitudes had no obvious relationship with the children's anthropometric measurements.     

Food avoidance in children. The influence of maternal feeding practices and behaviours

The aim of this study was to examine the contribution of a broad range of maternal feeding practices in predicting parental reports of food avoidance eating behaviours in young children, after controlling for child temperament, and maternal dietary restraint which have previously been associated with feeding problems. One hundred and four mothers of children aged between 3 and 6 years completed self report measures of their child's eating behaviour and temperament, maternal dietary restraint and child feeding practices. Maternal reports of food avoidance eating behaviours were associated with an emotional child temperament, high levels of maternal feeding control, using food for behaviour regulation and low encouragement of a balanced and varied food intake. Maternal feeding practices, predominantly pressure to eat, significantly predicted food avoidance eating behaviours after controlling for child emotionality and maternal dietary restraint. The significant contribution of maternal feeding practices, which are potentially modifiable behaviours, suggests that the feeding interactions of parents and their children should be targeted for intervention and the prevention of feeding difficulties during early childhood. Future research should continue to explore how a broader range of feeding practices, particular those that may be more adaptive, might influence child eating behaviour.     

"Just three more bites": an observational analysis of parents' socialization of children's eating at mealtime

The objective of this study was to describe comprehensively the structure and process of the childhood mealtime environment. A socioeconomically diverse sample of 142 families of kindergarteners (52% females) was observed at dinnertime using a focused-narrative observational system. Eighty-five percent of parents tried to get children to eat more, 83% of children ate more than they might otherwise have, with 38% eating moderately to substantially more. Boys were prompted to eat as often as girls and children were prompted to eat as many times in single- as in two-parent households. Children were very rarely restricted in their mealtime intake. High-SES parents used reasoning, praise, and food rewards significantly more often than low-SES families. Mothers used different strategies than fathers: fathers used pressure tactics with boys and mothers praised girls for eating. Future research should examine the meanings children ascribe to their parents' communications about food intake and how perceived parental messages influence the development of long-term dietary patterns. Interpreted alongside the evidence for children's energy self-regulation and the risk of disruption of these innate processes, it may be that parents are inadvertently socializing their children to eat past their internal hunger/satiety cues. These data reinforce current recommendations that parents should provide nutritious foods and children, not parents, should decide what and how much of these foods they eat.     

Nutritional Knowledge,Parenting Styles and Feeding Practices of a South African Sample of Parents

ABSTRACT

Parenting can be considered as being an all-encompassing network of development for children. Children learn about eating not only through their own experiences but also by watching others. Mothers and children show similar patterns of food acceptance and food preferences. Children’s intake of fruit and vegetables was positively related to parents’ intake of fruit and vegetables. The current study used self-reported data from parents/primary caregivers' children aged 3–18 covering sociodemographic characteristics, feeding style dimensions (‘control overeating’, ‘emotional feeding’, ‘encouragement to eat’ and ‘instrumental feeding’) and parenting style dimensions (‘involvement’ and ‘strictness’). The results suggest, that in general, parents were inclined to encourage balance and variety in the food intake of their children, modeling healthy eating behavior, as well as monitoring the food intake of children while restricting unhealthy foods. Further research is needed into whether parents’ diets affect children’s food choices feeding.     

Which adaptive maternal eating behaviors predict child feeding practices? An examination with mothers of 2- to 5-year-old children

Researchers have started to explore the detrimental impact of maladaptive maternal eating behaviors on child feeding practices. However, identifying which adaptive maternal eating behaviors contribute to lower use of negative and higher use of positive child feeding practices remains unexamined. The present study explored this link with 180 mothers of 2- to 5-year-old children. Hierarchical regression analyses (controlling for recruitment venue and maternal demographic characteristics, i.e., age, education, ethnicity, and body mass index) examined mothers' intuitive eating and eating competence as predictors of four feeding practices (restriction, monitoring, pressure to eat, and dividing feeding responsibilities with their child). Mothers who gave themselves unconditional permission to eat were less likely to restrict their child's food intake. Mothers who ate for physical (rather than emotional) reasons and had eating-related contextual skills (e.g., mindfulness when eating, planning regular and nutritious eating opportunities for themselves) were more likely to monitor their child's food intake. Mothers who had eating-related contextual skills were more likely to divide feeding responsibilities with their child. No maternal eating behavior predicted pressure to eat. Interventions to help mothers develop their eating-related contextual skills and eat intuitively, in particular, may translate into a more positive feeding environment for their young children.     

Influence of parental attitudes in the development of children eating behaviour

The present paper is a review of available data on effects of parental feeding attitudes and styles on child nutritional behaviour. Food preferences develop from genetically determined predispositions to like sweet and salty flavours and to dislike bitter and sour tastes. There is evidence for existence of some innate, automatic mechanism that regulate appetite. However, from birth genetic predispositions are modified by experience. There are mechanisms of taste development: mere exposure, medicine effect, flavour learning, flavour nutrient learning. Parents play a pivotal role in the development of their child's food preferences and energy intake, with research indicating that certain child feeding practices, such as exerting excessive control over what and how much children eat, may contribute to childhood overweight. Mothers are of particular interest on children's eating behaviour, as they have been shown to spend significantly more time than fathers in direct interactions with their children across several familial situations.A recent paper describes two primary aspects of control: restriction, which involves restricting children's access to junk foods and restricting the total amount of food, and pressure, which involves pressuring children to eat healthy foods (usually fruits and vegetables) and pressuring to eat more in general. The results showed significant correlations between parent and child for reported nutritional behaviour like food intake, eating motivations, and body dis- and satisfaction. Parents create environments for children that may foster the development of healthy eating behaviours and weight, or that may promote overweight and aspects of disordered eating. In conclusion positive parental role model may be a better method for improving a child's diet than attempts at dietary control.     

Confirmatory factor analysis of a questionnaire measuring control in parental feeding practices in mothers of Head Start children

Parental control in child feeding has focused primarily on directive types of control, such as pressure to eat and food restriction. This study aimed to develop an instrument to assess other types of directive control and two additional aspects of parental child feeding, non-directive and food environmental control. Mothers of Head Start children (n=330) completed a 29-item instrument designed to assess these three feeding constructs and reported their children's food intakes. Researchers measured heights and weights of both mothers and children. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the model with three constructs did not provide an acceptable fit to the data, but an alternative model with seven sub-constructs did (Chi-square=330, df=228 p<.05, CFI=.942, RMSEA=.037). The latter model included 24 items loading onto one of the following seven factors: high control, high contingency, child-centered feeding, encouraging nutrient-dense foods, discouraging energy-dense foods, mealtime behaviors, and timing of meals. By allowing researchers to quantitatively measure feeding practices in parents with limited resources, this instrument may contribute to an improved understanding of how parental child feeding behaviors can influence children's food intakes and weight status.     

Maternal child feeding practices and obesity: a discordant sibling analysis

BACKGROUND: The relationship between maternal feeding practices and weight status of 7-12 year-old obese and nonobese siblings was evaluated in 18 families using a discordant sibling design. METHOD: Mothers completed measures of concern and perception of children's weight and eating behavior, their control over child feeding, and maternal eating behavior. RESULTS: Intraclass correlations suggested similarity between obese and nonobese siblings in maternal control over feeding. Mothers perceived differences between their obese and nonobese children's eating regulation. Mothers' weight status was positively associated with disinhibition of their own eating as well as concern about both their obese and nonobese children's weight and health. DISCUSSION: These findings fail to support the hypothesis that maternal control over child feeding is related to childhood obesity, but highlight the impact of maternal weight history and eating habits on her impression of children's future weight and health independent of the child's weight status.     

Australian parents' views on their 5-6-year-old children's food choices

The home food environment is central to the development of healthy eating behaviours, but associations between the home food environment and children's food choices are not yet fully understood. The aims of this study were to explore parents' views regarding factors that influence children's food choices and parents' decision-making regarding the food they provide to their children. In-depth one-on-one interviews were conducted using a semi-structured interview schedule. Key concepts and themes were coded independently by two investigators. Participants include seventeen parents (16 mothers and 1 father) of children in their first year of formal schooling (aged 5-6 years). Five main themes emerged from the interviews: food marketing, food availability/food exposure, feeding strategies, modelling of eating and opportunities for food involvement. Parents believed that food marketing influenced their child's food preferences but differed in the ways they managed these influences. The food made available to children was also seen to influence what a child ate. Yet, although some parents believed it was the parents' role to determine what foods were made available to their child, others offered food on the basis of the child's tastes or preferences. The use of food as a reward was a feeding strategy employed by many parents. Family mealtimes were seen as an important opportunity for modelling of eating behaviour by parents. Peers were also seen to influence children's food preferences and eating behaviour. Finally, many parents believed that involving children in the preparation of food had a positive impact on children's food choices. Associations between the home food environment and children's food choices are complex and involve multiple mediators. Parents' views on the promoters and reinforcers of their decision-making regarding food and their child's food choices provide useful insights into these mediating factors. Increased understanding of these relationships is likely to enhance obesity prevention efforts.     

Individual and family environment correlates differ for consumption of core and non-core foods in children

Children's diets contain too few fruits and vegetables and too many foods high in saturated fat. Food intake is affected by multiple individual and family factors, which may differ for core foods (that are important to a healthy diet) and non-core foods (that are eaten more for pleasure than health). Data came from a sample of twins aged 11 years (n 342) and their parents from the Twins Early Development Study. Foods were categorised into two types: core (e.g. cereals, vegetables and dairy) and non-core (e.g. fats, crisps and biscuits). Parents' and children's intake was assessed by an FFQ. Mothers' and children's preference ratings and home availability were assessed for each food type. Parental feeding practices were assessed with the child feeding questionnaire and child television (TV) watching was maternally reported. Physical activity was measured using accelerometers. Correlates of the child's consumption of each food type were examined using a complex samples general linear model adjusted for potential confounders. Children's non-core food intake was associated with more TV watching, higher availability and greater maternal intake of non-core foods. Children's core food intake was associated with higher preferences for core foods and greater maternal intake of core foods. These results suggest that maternal intake influences both food types, while preferences affect intake of core foods but not of non-core foods, and availability and TV exposure were only important for non-core food intake. Cross-sectional studies cannot determine causality, but the present results suggest that different approaches may be needed to change the balance of core and non-core foods in children's diets.     

Predictors of fat intake behavior differ between normal-weight and obese WIC mothers

PURPOSE: To determine whether predictors of fat intake behavior were the same for normal-weight and obese WIC mothers when applying the PRECEDE-PROCEED model and to identify predictors for each group. DESIGN: Proportional stratified convenience sampling. SUBJECTS: Five hundred eighty-one nonpregnant, black and white normal-weight (n = 180) or obese (n = 401) women. SETTINGS: The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children in six counties in southern Wisconsin. MEASURES: The independent variables were predisposing, enabling, and reinforcing factors. Predisposing factors included beliefs in diet and health, beliefs in diet and body shape, health concerns in food choice, health concerns in nutrition, and eating habits. Enabling factors were cost of food, availability of time to prepare food, and accessibility to purchase food. Reinforcing factors were weight control intentions, sensory appeal, and mood. The dependent variable was fat intake behavior. Structural equation modeling was performed. RESULTS: When controlling for covariates, certain factors affectingfat intake behavior differed between the normal-weight and the obese groups. For the normal-weight group, only reinforcing factors were positively associated with fat intake behavior For the obese group, reinforcing and enabling, but not predisposing, factors were positively associated with fat intake behavior. CONCLUSIONS: Interventions to modify low-income women's fat intake behavior might benefit from targeting behavioral predictors that differ with body size. Messages that emphasize weight control intentions, sensory appeal, and mood are likely to affect both normalweight and obese women. Information about cost of food, availability of time to prepare food, and accessibility to purchase food is likely to be more effective with obese women.     

Child-feeding strategies are associated with maternal concern about children becoming overweight, but not children's weight status

BACKGROUND: Research suggests that parents use specific child-feeding strategies to influence their child's weight based on perceptions and concerns about their child's overweight risk, but limited data are available on ethnically diverse low-income populations. OBJECTIVE: This cross-sectional study examined associations between mothers' perception and concern about children's weight, child-feeding strategies, and child overweight in an ethnically diverse population. SUBJECTS: Mothers of preschool children (n=967) who participated in a federally funded nutrition program were asked how they fed their child, how they perceived child's weight, and whether or not they were concerned about their child becoming overweight. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Logistic regression to calculate odds of maternal perception/concern given child weight, feeding strategy given maternal perception/concern, and child overweight given feeding strategy. RESULTS: Only 21% (n=23/108) of overweight preschoolers were perceived as overweight. Maternal perception of overweight was not associated with feeding strategies. About 53% (n=76/144) of Hispanic, 42% (n=23/55) of African-American, and 29% (n=223/768) of white mothers reported concern about their child becoming overweight. Mothers reporting concern were more likely to restrict child's intake of select foods (odds ratio 5.94; 95% confidence interval 1.74 to 20.28) and less likely to pressure child to eat (odds ratio 0.39; 95% confidence interval 0.15 to 0.99); however, these strategies did not predict child overweight. CONCLUSIONS: Mothers concerned about their child becoming overweight were more likely to restrict children's intake of specific foods and less likely to pressure their child to eat; however, this study did not detect an association between feeding strategies and child overweight.     

Maternal Education Is Associated with Feeding Style

Maternal feeding styles may be influenced by maternal education, with implications for children's dietary quality and adiposity. One-hundred and eighty mothers completed the Parental Feeding Style Questionnaire, which includes scales assessing four aspects of feeding style, ie, control over feeding, emotional feeding, instrumental feeding, and encouragement/prompting to eat. Mothers with higher education had significantly higher scores on control over feeding [F(1,177)=8.79; P=0.003] and significantly lower emotional feeding scores [F(1,177)=7.26; P=0.008] than those with lower education. There were no differences for instrumental feeding or encouragement/prompting to eat (P>0.05). These findings suggest modest but potentially important differences in maternal control and emotional feeding styles by maternal education. Should these feeding characteristics prove salient to childhood diet and weight, this could inform appropriately targeted parental feeding advice.     

Meals in Our Household: reliability and initial validation of a questionnaire to assess child mealtime behaviors and family mealtime environments

Mealtimes in families with young children are increasingly of interest to nutrition and public health researchers, yet assessment tools are limited. Meals in Our Household is a new parent-report questionnaire that measures six domains: 1) structure of family meals, 2) problematic child mealtime behaviors, 3) use of food as reward, 4) parental concern about child diet, 5) spousal stress related to child's mealtime behavior, and 6) influence of child's food preferences on what other family members eat. Reliability and initial face, construct, and discriminant validity of the questionnaire were evaluated between January 2007 and December 2009 in two cross-sectional studies comprising a total of 305 parents of 3- to 11-year-old children (including 53 children with autism spectrum disorders). Internal consistencies (Cronbach's α) for the six domains averaged .77 across both studies. Test-retest reliability, assessed among a subsample of 44 parents who repeated the questionnaire after between 10 and 30 days, was excellent (Spearman correlations for the domain scores between two administrations ranged from 0.80 to 0.95). Initial construct validity of the instrument was supported by observation of hypothesized inter-relationships between domain scores that were of the same direction and similar magnitude in both studies. Consistent with discriminant validity, children with autism spectrum disorders had statistically significantly (P<0.05) higher domain scores for problematic child mealtime behaviors, use of food as reward, parental concern about child diet, and spousal stress, as compared to typically developing children. Meals in Our Household may be a useful tool for researchers studying family mealtime environments and children's mealtime behaviors.     

Significant differences in maternal child‐feeding style between ethnic groups in the UK: the role of deprivation and parenting styles

Background

Nonresponsive maternal child‐feeding interactions, such as restricting, pressurising and emotional feeding, can affect the ability of a child to self‐regulate intake and increase the risk of becoming overweight. However, despite findings that South Asian and Black children living in the UK are more likely to be overweight, UK research has not considered how maternal child‐feeding style might differ between ethnic groups. The present study aimed to explore variations in maternal child‐feeding style between ethnic groups in the UK , taking into account associated factors such as deprivation and parenting style.

Methods

Six hundred and fifty‐nine UK mothers with a child who was aged 5–11 years old completed a questionnaire. Items included ethnicity and demographic data, as well as copies of the Child Feeding Questionnaire, Parental Feeding Styles Questionnaire and Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire.

Results

Significant differences in perceived responsibility (P = 0.002), restriction (P = 0.026), pressure to eat (P = 0.045), instrumental feeding (P = 0.000) and emotional feeding (P = 0.000) were found between the groups. Mothers from South Asian backgrounds reported higher levels of pressure to eat, emotional feeding and indulgent feeding styles, whereas mothers from Chinese backgrounds reported greater perceived responsibility and restriction. Mothers from Black and White British backgrounds were not significantly higher with respect to any behaviour. Maternal child‐feeding style was also associated with deprivation and parenting style, although these did not fully explain the data.

Conclusions

Understanding cultural factors behind maternal child‐feeding style, particularly around pressurising and indulgent feeding behaviours, may play an important part in reducing levels of children who are overweight and obese in the UK .

     

Do parental feeding practices moderate the relationships between impulsivity and eating in children?

This study examines the relationships between children's impulsivity, their eating behaviours, and their perceptions of their parent's feeding practices. 153 10-13 year old children completed questionnaires assessing their eating behaviours, their impulsiveness and their perception of their parent's feeding practices. Children's reports of dysfunctional eating behaviours were significantly correlated with their perceptions of their parents feeding practices and with their levels of impulsivity. Children's reports of parental monitoring of their food intake significantly moderated the influence of child impulsiveness upon emotional eating. Children's perceptions of parental monitoring of their food intake may potentially have a protective effect at preventing more impulsive children from eating in response to emotional feelings.     

Relationships between the eating behaviors of parents and their 18-month-old children: A laboratory study

Twenty-nine 18-month-old children and their parents participated in a laboratory study during which eating behavior was directly observed. Each of the parents selected food from a standard buffet and ate alone on separate occasions. The child ate at another time assisted by his or her mother who did not eat at the same time. Principal Components Analyses revealed three eating behaviors shared by parents and their children: caloric intake (meal content); active feed time (eating duration); and bite frequency (eating style). Mothers' eating style and fathers' duration of eating were correlated (r = .55). A pattern of rapid eating in mothers and prolonged eating in fathers was associated with a higher caloric intake in their child. Thus children's caloric intake was significantly correlated with mother's eating style (r = .49) and with father's duration of eating (r = .54). A weaker relationship was found between the caloric intakes of family members, and there was also a tendency for similar behaviors of parents and their children to be related. The implications of these findings for family-based weight control programs are examined.