小切口手术治疗腰椎椎体后缘离断症

目的：探讨腰椎椎体后缘离断症的有效手术方法。方法：将腰椎椎体后缘离断症分为侧方型及中央型,采用椎板拉钩法的小切口手术治疗腰椎椎体后缘离断症12例,均为男性;年龄23～40岁,平均30岁;病程17.9个月。侧方型10例,其中离断骨块位于L4椎体后下缘1例,L5椎体后上缘3例,S1椎体后上缘6例,均合并同侧椎间盘突出;中央型2例,离断骨块均位于S1椎体后上缘。侧方型采用单侧椎板间开窗,摘除突出的椎间盘髓核,摘除椎体后缘骨块;中央型采用双侧椎板间开窗,摘除突出的椎间盘髓核,摘除椎体后缘骨块。结果：所有患者获得随访12～36个月,平均22.5个月,按照Macnab术后评定标准：优10例,良2例。结论：小切口手术治疗腰椎椎体后缘离断症具有手术创伤小、操作方便的优点,可完整摘除椎体后缘骨块,是一有效的手术方法。     

腰椎间盘突出合并椎体后缘离断症的治疗

目的探讨腰椎间盘突出合并椎体后缘离断症的临床治疗方法.方法腰椎间盘突出合并椎体后缘离断患者31例,男24例,女7例;年龄18～61岁,平均32.6岁,20～40岁者占64.5%.2例采用保守治疗,其余29例根据离断骨块、突出椎间盘与椎管的关系选择术式.偏一侧者行患侧开窗或扩大开窗摘除致压物,呈中央型或旁中央型者行双侧开窗摘除致压物,累及椎管前方大部者行后路腰椎椎体间融合术（posteriorlumbar interbody fusion,PLIF）或经椎间孔腰椎椎体间融合术（transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion,TLIF）.结果全部病例随访1～4年,平均2.6年.1例保守治疗无效者改行患侧开窗减压术.离断骨块和突出椎间盘偏一侧者6例术后均获显效;中央型或旁中央型者10例术后总体恢复率仅为60%,未恢复及术后症状加重者再行PLIF而获明显改善;累及椎管前方大部者13例术后均获得满意疗效.结论腰椎间盘突出合并椎体后缘离断症经保守治疗无效者应尽早手术治疗.病变偏一侧者可行患侧开窗或扩大开窗摘除致压物;中央型或旁中央型者若突出物占位椎管以旁侧为主且该侧无明显侧隐窝狭窄时可行双侧开窗减压,若突出物占位椎管以中央为主或存在明显侧隐窝狭窄时应行PLIF或TLIF;累及椎管前方大部者应行PLIF或TLIF.     

腰骶椎椎体后缘离断症的手术治疗

目的:探讨腰骶椎椎体后缘离断症的临床治疗方法及疗效。方法:2004年2月～2010年6月共收治腰骶椎椎体后缘离断患者34例,行X线、CT、MRI检查确诊。均行游离骨块及相应节段椎间盘切除。先行椎间盘切除,扩大椎间隙,构建与离断骨块相适应的沟槽,采用咬、刮、凿等技术切除骨块。Takata分型中13例Ⅲ型离断患者行扩大开窗或半椎板切除。Ⅰ、Ⅱ型离断患者,单侧出现神经根症状者行患侧扩大开窗或半椎板切除11例;双侧出现神经根损害者行双侧开窗5例;椎管狭窄明显、伴有椎体滑脱行全椎板切除5例。若离断骨块较大,侧隐窝狭窄,脊柱不稳患者同时行后路腰椎椎体间融合术(posterior lumbar interbody fusion,PLIF)11例。随访时摄正侧位X线片观察植骨融合情况,应用腰椎JOA评分系统评价近期疗效。结果:随访11个月～4.6年,平均2.7年,术前JOA评分平均12.4分,末次随访时平均27.2分,除1例Ⅱ型、1例Ⅲ型离断患者外,其他患者均获得满意疗效,优良率94%。未出现术中术后并发症,植骨均融合。结论:椎体后缘离断症经保守治疗无效者应尽早手术治疗。正确的术前诊断及对离断骨块类型、位置的准确掌握及切除是外科手术成功的关键。     

腰椎椎体后缘离断合并椎间盘突出症

目的 分析腰椎椎体后缘离断合并椎间盘突出症的发病机理，探讨手术治疗方法。方法 回顾总结10例腰椎后缘离断合并椎间盘突出症患的临床表现、影像学资料及手术方法选择。结果 10例患中，6例表现为单侧腰腿痛，4例为双侧；4例合并间歇性跛行，其中2例伴有马尾神经受压。CT检查显示全部病例腰椎椎体后缘形成突向椎管内的骨块，其相应的椎体后角骨缺损区为椎间盘髓核组织，其中7例椎间盘突出物超过椎体后缘骨。10例均行手术切除突出的椎间盘组织，其中6例同时行离断骨块切除。全部病例经3～36个月随访取得满意效果。结论 本病发病机理主要还是由于青少年时期椎体后缘环状骨骺变异或损伤逐步引起椎间盘突出的继发改变，最终造成神经根和硬膜囊的压迫。椎体后缘骨块仅部分参与神经根压迫。椎管内神经根及硬膜囊的彻底减压才能达到满意效果。     

腰椎椎体后缘离断症

目的：认识腰椎椎体后缘离断症的临床及影像学诊断依据，提出治疗及手术要点。方法：8例腰椎椎体后缘离断症的患者，术前被冠以腰椎间盘突出症合并软骨结节突出4例，后纵韧带骨化2例，2例临床诊断有腰椎椎体后缘离断症的存在，术中均见大小不等的与突出的椎间盘组织并不相连的浮动骨块。结果：8例病人全部手术治疗，术后疼痛症状消失。随访4～18个月，只有2例患者诉残留阴雨天腰部酸痛症状。结论：腰椎间盘突出症的患者在CT扫描见突出物合并有骨化块时，要仔细分析有无腰椎椎体后缘离断的现象。清晰的腰椎正侧位X线片，病椎间隙CT轴位扫描有助于术前诊断。卧床休息，一般不做牵引及推拿，手术宜采取椎板双侧开窗以求完整切除骨块。     

腰椎椎体后缘离断症

目的 认识腰椎椎体后缘离断症的临床及影像学诊断依据,提出治疗及手术要点。方法 8例腰椎椎体后缘离断症的患者,术前被冠以腰椎间盘突出症合并软骨结节突出4例,后纵韧带骨化2例,2例临床诊断有腰椎椎体后缘离断症的存在,术中均见大小不等的与突出的椎间盘组织并不相连的浮动骨块。结果 8例病人全部手术治疗,术后疼痛症状消失。随访4～18个月,只有2例患者诉残留阴雨天腰部酸痛症状。结论 腰椎间盘突出症的患者在CT扫描见突出物合并有骨化块时,要仔细分析有无腰椎椎体后缘离断的现象。清晰的腰椎正侧位X线片,病椎间隙CT轴位扫描有助于术前诊断。卧床休息,一般不做牵引及推拿,手术宜采取椎板双侧开窗以求完整切除骨块。     

高位腰椎间盘突出症手术治疗23例报告

目的 探讨高位腰椎间盘突出症的临床特点,诊断及治疗.方法 对23例高位腰椎间盘突出症患者采用两种手术方法治疗:对于8例以一侧症状为主者,行单侧椎板间隙开窗或半椎板切除,髓核摘除;对于15例髓核突出大或中央型突出合并双侧症状、出现马尾综合征者,行全椎板切除、髓核摘除、后路植骨融合内固定术.结果 术后随访1～15年,平均3...     

腰椎间盘突出症手术失败原因和再手术方法的探讨

目的探讨腰椎间盘突出症手术失败的原因及再手术的时机和方法。方法对腰椎间盘突出症手术失败患者的初次术前诊断、手术方法、再手术前临床表现、影像学检查进行评估。分析初次手术失败原因及再手术治疗的适应证、手术方法、手术入路及疗效。在获得随访的患者中,行开窗、扩大开窗法腰椎间盘摘除术46例,行半椎板切除减压、椎间盘摘除术12例,行全椎板切除减压、椎间盘摘除、神经根管松解术22例,行全椎板切除减压、椎体后缘骨赘及软骨结节切除术16例,行后路经椎弓根螺钉固定、椎管减压、神经通道松解、后外侧植骨或椎间融合术47例。结果143例患者初次手术后获得随访,随访时间24～144个月,平均62个月。再手术后29例出现并发症。采用日本骨科学会(JOA)腰背痛29分评分标准对患者进行评分。患者再手术前JOA评分平均11.3分,术后随访时JOA评分平均24.2分,平均改善率72.9%。结论腰椎间盘突出症再手术的原因包括手术适应证选择不当、多间隙突出遗漏、术中定位错误及髓核摘除不彻底、双侧型或中央型突出只切除一侧、椎体后缘软骨结节未切除、未处理中央椎管狭窄及神经根管狭窄、术后腰椎间盘突出复发、全椎板减压术后腰椎节段性不稳定。正确选择再手术时机及方法仍可以获得较为满意的疗效。     

腰椎椎体后缘离断并间盘突出症（附9例报告）

对腰椎椎体后缘离断并间盘突出症的发病机理和临床进行研究。方法：对９例患者的临床表现、影像学、手术所见及治疗方法进行研究。结果：９例患者均有典型的腰腿疼痛或（和）下肢间歇性跛行,共有１０个腰椎椎体后缘离断骨块和椎间盘共同突向椎管,１例患者有Ｌ５下缘和Ｓ１上缘两个骨块,其相对应的椎体后缘骨缺损被髓核组织所充填,７例进行了手术治疗,减压后症状消失。结论：其发病的主要机理是青少年时期椎体后缘的离断以及在此基础上与椎间盘的突出相互作用,离断骨块和椎间盘共同构成了对硬膜囊或（和）神经根的压迫,产生间歇性跛行或（和）下肢疼痛,减压后症状消失。     

经皮脊柱内窥镜治疗腰椎间盘突出症合并椎体后缘离断近期疗效

目的 探讨经皮脊柱内窥镜治疗腰椎间盘突出症合并椎体后缘离断的可行性及近期疗效。方法2008年7月-2013年1月,采用经皮脊柱内窥镜治疗腰椎间盘突出症合并椎体后缘离断57例。男39例,女18例;年龄13~46岁,平均26.7岁。29例有明确腰部外伤史。均为单节段单侧椎间盘突出,其中L4、5 22例,L5、S1 35例。离断骨块为侧方型25例,中央型32例;位于L4椎体后下缘9例,L5椎体后上缘13例,L5椎体后下缘8例,S1椎体后上缘27例。均采用症状侧单侧入路(椎板间或椎间孔入路),镜下摘除突出椎间盘、部分或完全切除离断的骨块。结果 术中均准确定位,无神经根损伤、血肿形成及硬膜囊撕裂等并发症发生。手术时间20~85 min,术中透视次数2~15次,术中出血量3~10 mL。术后影像学检查示离断骨块未切除16例,部分切除32例,完全切除9例;椎间盘均彻底摘除。患者均获随访,随访时间10~64个月,中位时间16个月。术后6个月根据Macnab术后疗效评定标准,获优48例,良6例,可3例,优良率94.7%。结论 经症状侧单侧入路经皮脊柱内窥镜治疗腰椎间盘突出症合并椎体后缘离断,具有损伤小、对腰椎正常结构破坏小、出血量少、康复时间短等优势,近期疗效较好,远期疗效有待进一步观察明确。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.