Screening and treatment for sexually transmitted infections in pregnancy

Many sexually transmitted infections are associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends screening all pregnant women for human immunodeficiency virus infection as early as possible. Treatment with highly active antiretroviral therapy can reduce transmission to the fetus. Chlamydia screening is recommended for all women at the onset of prenatal care, and again in the third trimester for women who are younger than 25 years or at increased risk. Azithromycin has been shown to be safe in pregnant women and is recommended as the treatment of choice for chlamydia during pregnancy. Screening for gonorrhea is recommended in early pregnancy for those who are at risk or who live in a high-prevalence area, and again in the third trimester for patients who continue to be at risk. The recommended treatment for gonorrhea is ceftriaxone 125 mg intramuscularly or cefixime 400 mg orally. Hepatitis B surface antigen and serology for syphilis should be checked at the first prenatal visit. Benzathine penicillin G remains the treatment for syphilis. Screening for genital herpes simplex virus infection is by history and examination for lesions, with diagnosis of new cases by culture or polymerase chain reaction assay from active lesions. Routine serology is not recommended for screening. The oral antivirals acyclovir and valacyclovir can be used in pregnancy. Suppressive therapy from 36 weeks' gestation reduces viral shedding at the time of delivery in patients at risk of active lesions. Screening for trichomoniasis or bacterial vaginosis is not recommended for asymptomatic women because current evidence indicates that treatment does not improve pregnancy outcomes.     

Evidence-based prenatal care: part II. Third-trimester care and prevention of infectious diseases

All pregnant women should be offered screening for asymptomatic bacteriuria, syphilis, rubella, and hepatitis B and human immunodeficiency virus infection early in pregnancy. Women at increased risk should be tested for hepatitis C infection, gonorrhea, and chlamydia. All women should be questioned about their history of chickenpox and genital or orolabial herpes. Routine screening for bacterial vaginosis is not recommended. Influenza vaccination is recommended in women who will be in their second or third trimester of pregnancy during flu season. Women should be offered vaginorectal culture screening for group B streptococcal infection at 35 to 37 weeks' gestation. Colonized women and women with a history of group B streptococcal bacteriuria should be offered intrapartum intravenous antibiotics. Screening for gestational diabetes remains controversial. Women should be offered labor induction after 41 weeks' gestation.     

Emergency Department Sexually Transmitted Disease and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Screening: Findings from a National Survey

Objectives: To use a previously conducted national physician survey to determine the extent of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and sexually transmitted disease (STD) screening by emergency physicians compared with physicians practicing in other settings (primary care offices, hospital ambulatory care clinics, or other).
Methods: From the survey responses, the authors determined the percentage of emergency physicians and physicians not practicing in EDs screening various patient groups for syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia, and HIV. Additional data from the survey (for practice location, physician gender, and patient demographics of race and gender) were used in multivariate logistic regressions to determine adjusted odds ratios (ORs).
Results: Of 3,838 survey respondents providing answers to all questions analyzed for this study, 401 (10.5%) practiced in an emergency department. Of the remaining 3,437 physicians, 89% practiced in primary care offices or hospital ambulatory care clinics. Based on unadjusted ORs, emergency physicians were less likely than physicians not practicing in EDs to screen for all STDs and HIV in all patient groups (men, nonpregnant women, and pregnant women), although the differences in screening rates in male patients for chlamydia or gonorrhea were not significant. The adjusted ORs varied from 0.136 (for HIV screening of pregnant women) to 1.177 (for gonorrhea screening of pregnant women). All adjusted ORs that were significant at p < 0.05 were < 1.0.
Conclusions: Although prior research has shown that STD and HIV rates are relatively high in emergency department patients compared with the population as a whole, screening rates are lower than in other settings. Addressing barriers may increase screening rates.     

Sexually transmitted diseases during pregnancy: screening, diagnostic, and treatment practices among prenatal care providers in Georgia

BACKGROUND: Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) during pregnancy are associated with adverse outcomes. We conducted a prenatal care provider survey to determine STD screening, diagnosis, and treatment practices. METHODS: Standard questionnaires were mailed to Georgia-licensed obstetrician/ gynecologists, family practitioners, and nurse-midwives (N = 3,082) in 1998. RESULTS: Of the 1,300 care providers who returned the survey, 565 (44%) provided prenatal care, 390 (57%) were male, and 396 (70%) were obstetrician/ gynecologists. Overall, 553 prenatal care providers (98%) reported screening all pregnant patients for syphilis, 551 (98%) for hepatitis B, 501 (89%) for trichomonas, 474 (84%) for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 401 (71%) for gonorrhea, 403 (71%) for chlamydia, 475 (84%) for group B streptococci, and 130 (23%) for bacterial vaginosis (BV) (high risk). Less than 10% used amplification tests for chlamydia or gonorrhea. Most providers used appropriate regimens to treat STD in pregnant women. A written office policy on testing for BV or HIV was associated with increased screening. CONCLUSIONS: Provider education is needed about diagnosis and treatment of STD during pregnancy.     

Opportunities for treating sexually transmitted infections and reducing HIV risk in rural South Africa

AIM: This paper is a report of a study to determine the aetiological distribution of sexually transmitted infections and prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus infection in selected primary health care clinic attendees. BACKGROUND: South Africa has a high prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus and other sexually transmitted infections. Sexually transmitted infections are managed syndromically in the public sector as part of the essential nurse-driven primary care services provided at no cost to the client. METHOD: This cross-sectional study was conducted in a rural community in South Africa between September and November 2002. A total of 277 consenting women were recruited. Vulvo-vaginal swabs were collected for screening for Neisseriae gonorrheae, Chlamydia trachomatis and Trichomonas vaginalis using DNA amplification methods and Gram stain with Nugent's score for the diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis. Seroprevalence of syphilis and human immunodeficiency virus infection were determined. FINDINGS: The overall prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus in the study was 43.7% (95% confidence interval 37.6-50.0) with the prevalence in family planning clinic attendees 45.5% (95% confidence interval 38.9-52.3) and antenatal clinic attendees 33.3% (95% confidence interval 19.6-50.3). The prevalence of sexually transmitted infections amongst both the antenatal clinic and family planning attendees accounted for at least 70% of cases. Fifty per cent of women had one recognized sexually transmitted infection with 17.9% of the family planning and 14.5% of the antenatal clinic attendees having infections from two recognized pathogens. All infections were asymptomatic. CONCLUSION: Nurse-driven antenatal and family planning services provide a useful opportunity for integrating reproductive health services, human immunodeficiency virus voluntary counselling and testing and treatment of sexually transmitted infections.     

Screening for sexually transmitted diseases by primary care physicians

The acquired immunodeficiency syndrome epidemic has drawn attention to screening for sexually transmitted diseases by primary care physicians. A telephone survey of primary care physicians in an area with a high incidence of STDs (Washington, DC) to ascertain the determinants and the extent of screening and counseling for STDs was completed in 1987. Ninety-nine physicians (33 internists, 38 obstetrician/gynecologists, and 28 family/general practitioners), representing 61% of those eligible, completed the interview. One third (39.4%) were screening for gonorrhea, more than one half (57.5%) for syphilis, and almost all (94%) had tested at least one individual for human immunodeficiency virus infection. Analysis suggested that concomitant screening for hepatitis B was significantly and positively associated with screening for gonorrhea and syphilis. Less than half (45.9%) of the physicians asked new patients about their sexual practices. Physicians should take histories of sexual practices and do more preventive counseling.     

Prenatal screening

Routine obstetric screening for all patients should include a Pap smear, urinalysis and urine culture, complete blood count, blood type, Rh factor and direct Coombs' test. Patients should also be screened for syphilis, rubella, gonorrhea and diabetes. For patients at high risk for certain conditions, additional studies of value include obstetric ultrasound, amniocentesis, serum alpha-fetoprotein level and screening for sickle cell anemia, herpes, hepatitis B, Chlamydia and human immunodeficiency virus.     

A gold standard of treatment and cure for chlamydia

With the number of sexually transmitted disease (STD) cases on the rise, STDs have proved to be costly to the health of men and women who suffer from them, as well as to the nation's healthcare budget. Individuals afflicted with a STD, such as syphilis, herpes, gonorrhea, or chlamydia, are at a greater risk of contracting HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. Because managing the STD epidemic may be among the best tools for preventing the spread of HIV, managed care must focus its efforts on prevention, early detection, and effective treatment.     

Prevalence of sexually transmitted infections and the sexual behavior of elderly people presenting to health examination centers in Korea

Sexually transmitted infections are diseases provoking a great social and economic burden as well as health-related problems, and with the aging of society and the extension of life expectancy sexually transmitted infections in the elderly have drawn more attention these days. For the management of sexually transmitted infections in this population, basic epidemiological data need to be established. In this study, 1804 persons from the general population aged over 60 years visiting health examination centers were tested for syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydia, and interviewed about the patterns of sexual behavior of elderly people through questionnaires. The prevalence rates of syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydia recorded were 0.222% (4/1804), 0 (none), and 0.776% (14/1804), respectively. The results of the survey showed that the sexual life of the elderly people was currently active, and the sexual behavior of chlamydia patients was distinguished in some characteristics from that of the general participants. Political management to prevent sexually transmitted infections needs to be continued in elderly people as it is in other age groups. More detailed follow-up studies are necessary to determine the incidence and prevalence rates of the diseases in the elderly population in future, and the results of this study are considered to be useful as basic data for such studies.     

孕妇感染沙眼衣原体、淋病、梅毒及艾滋病的调查分析

目的：了解该院孕妇患性传播疾病（包括生殖道沙眼衣原体感染、淋病、梅毒及艾滋病）的情况,以便采取有效措施确保母婴健康,减少母婴传播的风险。方法对2934例于该院产科门诊进行孕期检查的孕妇进行宫颈分泌物沙眼衣原体、淋病奈瑟菌筛查,血清梅毒螺旋体抗体和 HIV抗体的检测。结果孕妇宫颈分泌物沙眼衣原体阳性率为4．02％（118/2934）,其中小于20岁年龄段孕妇的阳性率最高,为10．53％（10/95）。孕妇感染高峰在5月份和10月份,检出率分别为5．56％（16/288）和6．82％（12/176）。淋病检出率为0．17％（5/2934）,梅毒检出率为0．37％（11/2934）,艾滋病检出1例。结论生殖道沙眼衣原体、淋病奈瑟菌、梅毒螺旋体是孕妇感染性传播疾病中较为常见的病原菌,HIV的感染率相对低一些。沙眼衣原体在小于20岁年龄段中的检出率最高,感染有随季节变化的规律（高发于春、秋季）。对应加强对孕妇性传播疾病的宣传及筛查,做到早发现、早诊断、早治疗,减少母婴传播的风险,达到母婴健康的目的。     

Update on Chlamydia and Gonorrhea Screening During Pregnancy

Pregnant women in the United States are underscreened for chlamydia and gonorrhea, despite recommendations for broad testing. This puts women and infants at risk of complications from untreated infections. Nurses and other clinicians who care for pregnant women have a responsibility to be up‐to‐date in their knowledge of screening guidelines and to provide appropriate counseling to pregnant women based on their individual risk factors.     

Syphilis incidence in men who have sex with men with human immunodeficiency virus comorbidity and the importance of integrating sexually transmitted infection prevention into HIV care

Introduction: Syphilis continues to be a growing epidemic among men who have sex with men (MSM), particularly for those living with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). In 2016, MSM accounted for 80% of primary and secondary syphilis diagnoses in men in the United States; almost half of who were also HIV-infected. The synergistic relationship between HIV and syphilis has significant implications not only for HIV patient management, but also for sexually transmitted infection (STI) control among MSM.

Areas covered: We review the literature on STI screening and treatment barriers at the patient-, provider-, and health system-levels, and present strategies to incorporate STI prevention into HIV care settings.

Expert commentary: Integration of STI prevention into HIV care is paramount to stop the epidemic of not only syphilis, but also other curable STIs like gonorrhea and chlamydia. Although guidelines have been established for STI testing in HIV-infected MSM, screening rates continue to be lower than desired. Gonorrhea and chlamydia screening is below 50% in HIV-infected MSM; interventions that improve testing of those two infections must be implemented. For syphilis control, other additional strategies such as chemoprophylaxis should be considered given syphilis screening is above 50% in HIV-infected MSM.     

Extragenital Screening for Chlamydia and Gonorrhea Among Adolescents and Young Adults at a Sexual Health Clinic

ObjectiveTo increase screening rates for oropharyngeal and rectal (extragenital) chlamydia and gonorrhea infections among adolescents and young adults by 20% and for 90% of nurses to demonstrate a change in behavior and knowledge surrounding extragenital screening.DesignA pre- and posttest design to evaluate nurse knowledge and the percentage of extragenital chlamydia and gonorrhea screenings completed before and after a 2-month intervention period.SettingReproductive health clinic for adolescents and young adults up to age 25 years in the Twin Cities metropolitan area of Minnesota.ParticipantsFour registered nurses who provide direct client care at the identified sexual and reproductive health clinic.Intervention/MeasurementsWe implemented an education session for four staff nurses, a standardized sexual history taking tool, and protocols for obtaining oropharyngeal and rectal specimens. We measured extragenital chlamydia and gonorrhea screening rates, as well as knowledge and behavior change among registered nurses.ResultsData came from records for 623 individuals who were deemed at risk for extragenital chlamydia and gonorrhea infection. Extragenital chlamydia and gonorrhea screening rates increased by more than 700% from before to after the intervention. Five out of nine (55.6%) extragenital chlamydia and gonorrhea infections diagnosed would have been missed with urogenital screening alone. One hundred percent of nurses demonstrated an increase in their knowledge of the 5 P’s of sexual health (Partners, Practices, Protection from sexually transmitted infections, Past history of STIs, and Prevention of pregnancy) to conduct a risk assessment, the eligibility criteria for extragenital testing, and the actual collection processes of pharyngeal and rectal swabs.ConclusionUse of evidence-based recommendations and a collaborative team facilitated a more consistent approach to the assessment and diagnosis of extragenital chlamydia and gonorrhea infections. Generalizability is limited to the project site; however, this process could be implemented in other clinics to determine if similar results can be achieved.     

Serological findings amongst first‐time blood donors in Yaoundé, Cameroon: is safe donation a reality or a myth?

Blood safety remains an issue of major concern in transfusion medicine in developing countries where national blood transfusion services and policies, appropriate infrastructure, trained personnel and financial resources are lacking. This is aggravated by the predominance of family and replacement, rather than regular benevolent, nonremunerated donors. Thus, in order to identify and encourage healthy, regular and benevolent nonremunerated donors, consenting first-time blood donors in the Yaoundé University Teaching Hospital were screened for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B surface antigen (HBSAg), hepatitis C virus (HCV), human T-cell lymphotropic virus-I (HTLV-I) and syphilis using standard methods. Of 252 first-time donors recruited, 66 (26.2%) were positive for at least one of the infections screened. There were 7.9% positive for HIV, 10.7% for HBSAg, 4.8% for HCV and 9.1 and 1.6%, respectively, for syphilis and HTLV-I. About 30% of the 66 infected persons had co-infections. HIV-positive donors had a significantly increased risk of being positive for antibodies to syphilis (OR = 7.27; 95% CI = 2.23-23.51; P = 0.0007), not observed for HBV, HCV and HTLV-I. These results suggest that blood transfusion is still very unsafe in this community and that it is imperative that emphasis be laid on donor education. Furthermore, donors with a history of sexually transmitted infections should be totally excluded from all donations.     

Sexually transmitted infections and pelvic inflammatory disease in women

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are an important public health challenge in the United States. Primary care clinicians can contribute to decreasing these largely preventable causes of morbidity and mortality by integrating routine screening, testing, counseling, treatment, and partner management of STIs into their practice. Newer tests for chlamydia and gonorrhea that can be performed on urine specimens allow screening without a pelvic examination. The most recent edition of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention sexually transmitted disease treatment guidelines provides an evidence-based, reliable, and convenient set of recommendations for treating and caring for patients who have STIs.     

Prevalence of sexually transmitted infections and sexual behavior of young adults and middle-aged people presenting to health examination centers in Korea

Sexually transmitted infections lead to considerable costs and problems from a socioeconomic perspective, as well as in terms of patient health. In order to effectively manage sexually transmitted infections, it is necessary to establish basic epidemiologic data in this field. This study investigated prevalence rates of syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydia among 1612 persons aged 20–59 years among the general population who visited health examination centers in Korea, and examined the sexual behavior of young and middle-aged adults using a questionnaire survey. In total, 807 males and 805 females participated in this study, and among the 1612 subjects, 6, 7, and 90 were gave positive results in syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydia infection tests, respectively, indicating prevalence rates of 0.37, 0.43, and 5.58%. In the questionnaire survey, 85.8% of the respondents answered that they had not taken any test for a sexually transmitted infection, and chlamydia-positive respondents were observed to have had a significantly higher number of sexual partners. Among all of the respondents, 43.7% used a condom only sometimes during sexual intercourse, while 15% did not usually do so. Future studies to follow up the incidence and prevalence rates of sexually transmitted infections in detail in young adults and middle-aged people are necessary, and the results of this study will be utilized as basic data for them.     

Raising health care provider awareness of sexually transmitted disease in patients over age 50

An increase in sexual activity among persons over age 50 has resulted in a dramatically increased prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including higher rates of HIV/AIDS, syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydia. Raising awareness of health care providers regarding STDs in this age group is essential for appropriate prevention and treatment.     

广东省妊娠合并梅毒母婴传播影响因素分析

目的 分析广东省梅毒感染孕产妇的特征及其母婴传播影响因素,为广东省消除母婴传播政策制定提供依据。方法 以2014年1月1日至2021年2月1日广东省发生胎传梅毒的感染孕产妇为病例组,另以同地区、同分娩年度为匹配条件,筛选出未发生胎传梅毒的梅毒感染孕妇为对照组。对相关危险因素进行单因素和多因素条件logistic回归分析。结果 多因素条件logistic回归分析显示,同≤20岁年龄组的孕产妇相比,21～25岁（OR=0.537,95%CI:0.341～0.845）、26～30岁（OR=0.43,95%CI:0.272～0.679）、31～35岁（OR=0.322,95%CI:0.202～0.512）和≥36岁者（OR=0.321,95%CI:0.194～0.532）发生母婴传播的风险均较低;既往未发现患梅毒的孕产妇发生母婴传播的风险较高（OR=1.837,95%CI:1.352～2.495）;同在孕期就已经诊断患病的孕产妇相比,产时和产后诊断患梅毒的孕产妇发生梅毒母婴传播的风险均较高（OR=2.026,95%CI:1.472～2.790）、（OR=1.951,95%CI:1.333～2....