Trends in Substance Abuse and Infectious Disease Over 20 Years in a Large Methadone Maintenance Treatment (MMT) Clinic in Israel

ABSTRACT

Background: The objective was to study substance abuse, infectious disease, and patient outcomes (retention and substance abuse abstinence) over 2 decades in a large methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) facility within a tertiary-referral medical center.Methods: Prevalence of substance abuse was determined monthly between 1993 (35 patients) and 2013 (350 patients) based on observed random urine tests. On entry, patients were tested for hepatitis C and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) antibodies. One-year retention and substance abuse abstinence were calculated. Results: At admission, mean age and rate of cocaine and benzodiazepines abuse increased over the years, with no change in the prevalence of hepatitis C (50%) and HIV (<10%). Retention rate increased (P = .008) (range: 42.9%–92.4%; overall: 76.2%) and opiate abstinence also increased (P = .006) (range: 49.1%–85.7%; overall: 68.1%), reflecting outcome improvement over the years.Conclusions: Outcome improvement could be attributed to the staff's growing experience and improvements in treatment but also to changes in patient characteristics over the past 2 decades.     

Characteristics and Outcome of Minority Group Patients in Methadone Maintenance Treatment

Minority status is associated with mental and physical morbidity, substance dependence, and poor outcomes. To compare characteristics and treatment outcomes between patients from two minority groups in Israel (Christians and Muslims) and patients from the majority population (Jews) in methadone maintenance treatment (MMT), we prospectively studied all patients admitted to our clinic between 1993 and 2012 and followed up until 2013; 655 Jews, 67 Christians, and 37 Muslims. Christian patients differed from Jews and Muslims by younger age at admission to MMT, greater prevalence of drug injectors, and a higher proportion of Hepatitis-C and HIV sera positive. Muslims had comparatively less education and a lower proportion of females. The three groups had similar rates of one-year retention (75.9%) and opiate abstinence (68.1%). They also did not differ in long-term retention (up to 20 years): Muslims 5.5 years (95%CI 3.6-7.4), Christians 7.5 years (95%CI 6-9.1), and Jews 7.6 years (95%CI 7-8.2, p = .3). The Hepatitis-C incidence, however, was higher among the 21 admitted Hepatitis-C seronegative minorities (5.0/100 person years) than the 207 Hepatitis-C seronegative non-minority patients (1.7/100 person years, p=0.03). All groups had good treatment outcomes, except for Hepatitis-C seroconversion, which necessitates a specific preventive intervention among the minority groups.     

Gender-specific predictors of methadone treatment outcomes among African Americans at an urban clinic

Background: African American patients with opioid use disorder (OUD) have demonstrated poorer methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) outcomes compared with white patients. This issue is further complicated in urban settings, where African Americans experience high rates of poverty and publicly funded treatment. Despite interrelated factors that disadvantage African Americans, the literature focusing on this population is scant. To address this shortcoming, we conducted the first investigation of gender differences and gender-specific MMT outcome predictors among African Americans (or any racial minority population). This study provides gender-specific findings to improve African American MMT outcomes. Methods: We studied 211 African American patients (male: n?=?137, 64.9%) at an urban, university-affiliated MMT clinic. We used existing intake data to assess baseline demographic, substance use, mental health, and interpersonal factors. Primary outcomes were 3-month drug⁺ (positive) urine drug screen (UDS) results and treatment retention. Results: Women were more likely (than men) to endorse histories of interpersonal violence, substance abuse in their social network, and mental health problems. Men reported a greater likelihood (than women) for early opioid-use onset and a lack of prior MMT. There were no gender differences in 3-month drug⁺ UDS or treatment retention. In multivariable analyses among women, no baseline factors predicted 3-month opioid⁺ UDS and physical abuse history predicted a higher proportion of 3-month cocaine⁺ UDS. Among men, primary injection opioid use and older age best predicted a higher proportion of 3-month cocaine⁺ UDS and parent substance abuse predicted shorter retention. In both gender-stratified analyses, higher proportions of 3-month opioid⁺ UDS and cocaine⁺ UDS predicted shorter retention. Conclusions: This study offers an analysis of gender differences in risk factors, MMT outcomes, and gender-specific predictors among African American patients. MMT clinics should tailor assessment and treatment protocols to address gender-specific needs.     

Characterization of Former Heroin Addict Patients With Hepatitis C Virus Antibodies in a Methadone Maintenance Treatment (MMT) Clinic in Israel

Aims: To compare characteristics, retention in treatment and cessation of drug abuse of 249 positive hepatitis C (HCV+) with 188 negative hepatitis C (HCV?) antibody patients. Methods: Data on Hepatitis C, Hepatitis B and HIV results, urine-proven drug use, and modified ASI of all patients admitted to the Adelson MMT clinic between June/1993–Dec/2002 were prospectively collected. Results: HCV+ patients manifested more ever injecting drug use, immigrants, positive HIV antibody, hepatitis B antigen, years of opiate addiction pre-MMT and benzodiazepines misuse after one year in MMT than HCV? patients, with similar 1-year retention and proportion of opiate use cessation. Conclusions: Although characteristics of HCV+ and HCV? differed, they manifested similar outcomes: treatment retention and proportion of opiate use cessation.     

美沙酮维持治疗门诊病人滥用“冰毒”行为调查

目的:了解接受美沙酮维持治疗(methadone maintenance treatment.MMT)的阿片类药物成瘾者接受MMT期间是否存在滥用"冰毒"的行为及发生率,为有关部门及时掌握可能存在的隐匿药物滥用风险,为进一步完善MMT措施提供客观数据与科学建议。方法:采用自编的《美沙酮维持治疗病人基本信息调查表》对某地4所美沙酮维持治疗门诊收治的462名患者进行问卷调查,并对调查对象进行苯丙胺类尿检(胶体金法快速检测)。结果:462例被调查对象中苯丙胺类尿检阳性86例,阳性检出率达18.61%,其中,男性阳性率占18.52%,女性阳性率占19.05%。χ2检验结果显示,男女性别、年龄、婚姻状况、职业、受教育程度尿检阳性率的差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结獉论獉:接受美沙酮维持治疗的阿片类药物成瘾者有滥用冰毒的现象。     

瑞丽市美沙酮维持治疗流动试点服务车服药人员退出影响因素分析

目的：分析美沙酮维持治疗服药人员退出原因,提高治疗维持率。方法：将2006年11月6日门诊开诊到2008年12月31日期间参加美沙酮维持治疗的210例服药人员分成退出组与治疗组,探索影响维持率的因素。结果：两组人员的年龄、民族、职业、婚姻状况、文化程度、服药前主要使用的毒品种类、是否注射、是否共用过注射器、是否戒过毒、近半年吸毒方式和服药前吸毒年无显著性差异,服药时间短（小于6个月）、尿检阳性、未感染HIV或HCV的服药人员退出较多。结论：退出原因与服药时间、尿检、是否感染HIV或HCV有关,应加强对这一人群的管理和干预。     

影响重庆市海洛因成瘾者美沙酮维持治疗保持和脱失因素研究

目的:了解影响重庆市海洛因成瘾者社区美沙酮维持治疗保持和脱失的主要因素。方法:于2008年8月-2009年1月,调查重庆市社区美沙酮维持治疗门诊点参加美沙酮维持治疗的成瘾者300例,分析其社会人口学、药物滥用情况、美沙酮维持治疗情况,比较脱失者与维持者之间的差异。结果:研究对象在文化程度、吸毒年限、参加社区美沙酮维持治疗的时间和与毒友来往程度等方面对维持治疗保持和脱失有影响(P<0.05)。结论:针对影响美沙酮维持治疗的主要因素对参与治疗者开展相应的干预服务,以提高维持治疗的保持率。     

北京地区美沙酮维持治疗患者脱失原因调查

目的:了解北京地区美沙酮维持治疗(MMT)的脱失原因,为进一步推动MMT的健康发展及制定相关的政策提供依据。方法:采用定量、定性相结合的调查方法,对参加MMT的脱失人员进行调查。结果:北京市2个MMT门诊点共脱失511例,占参加治疗总人数的51.8%(511/986)。脱失者中男性占80.6%,女性占19.4%;30a以上者占80.6%;无业闲散人员占84.3%;初中及以下者占54.2%;既往吸毒时间在5-16a者占82.6%;静脉注射者占61.2%;43.1%的人在维持治疗半年后才脱失;脱失时60.0%的人MMT剂量在60mg以下;脱失的主要原因:复吸、贩毒等被公安机关逮捕或被强戒,占40.1%;自愿退出、不明原因占50.7%;离开北京、转出或缴费困难等其他原因占4.8%;躯体疾病或死亡占0.8%。结论:脱失多发生在治疗的维持期;脱失的原因很多,针对上述原因提出了相应的建议。     

美沙酮维持治疗临床疗效观察

目的:评价美沙酮门诊维持治疗留治率及美沙酮维持剂量范围和不良反应.方法:将符合ICD-10海洛因依赖者脱毒后随机分成两组,即对照组(A组)30例,只进行定期随访,不做任何治疗;实验组即美沙酮维持治疗组(B组)30例,进行美沙酮门诊维持治疗1年.评价指标有尿液吗啡检测、留治率、美沙酮维持治疗期间不良反应监测和生活质量量表评定.结果:对照组一年操守率为0,美沙酮门诊维持治疗组留治率为40%,美沙酮不良反应较少,且美沙酮维持治疗能明显改善吸毒者生活质量.结论:美沙酮门诊维持治疗疗效可靠、安全,值得推广.     

海洛因成瘾者社区美沙酮维持治疗脱失和保持的定性研究

目的:了解四川省西昌市海洛因成瘾者社区美沙酮维持治疗脱失和保持情况及其影响因素。方法:2005年12月-2006年1月,从四川省西昌市美沙酮维持治疗社区中分别选取87名参加维持治疗的吸毒者和50名相关社区人员进行美沙酮维持治疗脱失和保持情况及影响因素的个人深入访谈。结果:西昌市参加社区美沙酮维持治疗的吸毒者脱失的主要原因是因偷吸而被强制戒毒和外出;保持的主要影响因素是参加治疗的吸毒者主动与吸毒伙伴减少来往和积极工作。社区对美沙酮的主要影响因素是美沙酮维持治疗的知晓和了解程度低、对参加治疗的吸毒者仍存在偏见。结论:应对美沙酮维持治疗的参加者开展干预服务提高保持率,同时加大社区宣传减少社会偏见。     

Factors predicting retention in treatment: 10-year experience of a methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) clinic in Israel

The aims were to identify predictors of treatment retention in an Israeli methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) clinic, and to compare the findings to other international settings. We prospectively studied 492 patients admitted since 1993 through 10 years to an Israeli MMT clinic associated with a university-affiliated tertiary care medical center. Analyses (Kaplan Meier and Cox regression) included methadone dose and urinalysis results (for methadone, cocaine, opiates, benzodiazepines, THC, amphetamines) of each patient in the first month and after 1 year in treatment (or during the last month if the stay was >3 months and <1 year) and patients' characteristics (modified ASI). The 1-year retention rate was 74.4%; 65.8% stopped opiate abuse after 1 year in treatment. On admission, 13.6% of patients had used cocaine: there was a net decrease of 61.6% after 1 year. Factors predicting prolonged retention in MMT treatment (Cox regression) were daily methadone dose of 100mg or greater, negative urine for opiates after 1 year, and being a parent on admission. We conclude that our good outcome results (high rate of retention after 1 year (74.4%), high proportion of opiate abuse cessation (65.8%), and net reduction in cocaine abuse, similar to normal standards in other MMT clinics elsewhere in the world, justify the expansion of the MMT clinic network in Israel in order to make treatment available to all those who need it. A protocol favoring higher methadone dosage as appropriate is recommended.     

江苏省美沙酮门诊在治病人药物滥用情况分析

目的:调查美沙酮门诊在治病人海洛因偷吸和多药滥用情况,为美沙酮门诊药物滥用预防和干预工作提供基础数据支持。方法:随机抽取江苏省3个美沙酮社区药物维持治疗门诊点,每个门诊按美沙酮服药剂量分层抽取150例正在治疗的海洛因成瘾者,现场问卷调查病人一般情况和多药滥用情况,采集的病人尿液分别做5种滥用物质检测。结果:449例在治病人中8.5%(38例)的病人曾经退出过治疗,23.8%(107例)的病人自我报告最近1个月偷吸过海洛因。尿检显示美沙酮门诊治疗病人多药滥用比例达到36.3%(163例),尿检结果中吗啡阳性率最高,为23.4%(105例);安定类为15.4%(69例);苯丙胺类为9.4%(42例);吗啡、苯丙胺类和安定类尿检阳性病人中分别有80.0%(84例)、14.3%(6例)和52.2%(36例)主动报告使用相关物质。结论:美沙酮门诊病人中有多种药物滥用和偷吸海洛因现象;门诊发现新型毒品尤其是甲基苯丙胺使用者。建议门诊加强对维持病人偷吸毒品的危害教育。     

Patterns of Abstinence or Continued Drug Use Among Methadone Maintenance Patients and Their Relation to Treatment Retention

The efficacy and effectiveness of methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) in the medical management of opioid addiction has been well-established, but treatment outcomes are compromised by the continued use of licit and illicit drugs during MMT. The present study examined the relationship between in-treatment illicit drug use and retention and dropout of 604 MMT patients in Washington, D.C. Sixty-eight percent of patients did not test positive for an unprescribed drug during the study period. Of patients who tested positive for an illicit drug during the baseline period, 55% tested positive for cocaine, 44% for opiates, 23% for THC, 20% for benzodiazepines, 7% for PCP, and 4% for amphetamines. Those testing positive were three times more likely to leave treatment than those who did not test positive. Testing positive for one drug doubled the rate of attrition; testing positive for multiple drugs quadrupled the risk of attrition. Non-prescribed opioid or benzodiazepine use was a predictor of MMT dropout, but prescribed opioid or benzodiazepine use was not. Continued illicit drug use poses significant risk for subsequent premature termination of MMT. Assertive clinical management of continued illicit drug use could provide mechanisms to enhance MMT retention and long-term recovery outcomes.     

Variables associated with perceived sleep disorders in methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) patients

To characterize sleep disorders in methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) patients, we evaluated sleep quality of 101 non-selective patients from our MMT clinic in Israel between July, 2003 and July, 2004 by using the self-report questionnaire Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). Patients' urine tests were analyzed for methadone metabolite, opiates, benzodiazepine, cocaine, cannabis and amphetamines. Their urine results for drug abuse throughout the months prior to filling in the questionnaire and their maintenance methadone doses were recorded. Drug abuse was defined by at least one positive urine test. Methadone serum levels were available in 55 patients, assessed by Gas Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy. The patients' self-reported chronic pain questionnaires and their diagnosed psychiatric disorders were analyzed. Out of the 101 study patients, 78.2% were male, 52.5% had psychiatric disorders, 46.5% reported having chronic pain and 46.5% had positive urine for benzodiazepine. The mean daily methadone dose was 157+/-52.9 mg. The mean PSQI score was 9+/-4.8 (75.2% had scores >5 indicating "poor sleepers"). PSQI scores were higher in patients with positive urine for benzodiazepine, chronic pain and psychiatric disorders and they correlated with years of opiate abuse before admission to MMT, and with the methadone dose (r=0.48, p<0.0005). The latter two also correlated with each other. The PSQI was not correlated with duration in MMT, gender, age, abuse of opiates, cannabis or cocaine. We concluded that sleep disorders should be evaluated and treated among MMT patients, particularly in those with psychiatric disorders, benzodiazepine abuse, chronic pain and high methadone dose.     

美沙酮维持治疗门诊病人滥用“冰毒”行为调查

目的：了解接受美沙酮维持治疗（methadone maintenance treatment．MMT）的阿片类药物成瘾者接受MMT期间是否存在滥用“冰毒”的行为及发生率，为有关部门及时掌握可能存在的隐匿药物滥用风险，为进一步完善MMT措施提供客观数据与科学建议。方法：采用自编的《美沙酮维持治疗病人基本信息调查表》对某地4所美沙酮维持治疗门诊收治的462名患者进行问卷调查，并对调查对象进行苯丙胺类尿检（胶体金法快速检测）。结果：462例被调查对象中苯丙胺类尿检阳性86例，阳性检出率达18．61％，其中，男性阳性率占18．52％，女性阳性率占19．05％。检验结果显示，男女性别、年龄、婚姻状况、职业、受教育程度尿检阳性率的差异均无统计学意义（P〉0．05）。结论：接受美沙酮维持治疗的阿片类药物成瘾者有滥用冰毒的现象。     

Sexual Abuse and its Relation to Chronic Pain among Women from a Methadone Maintenance Clinic versus a Sexual Abuse Treatment Center

To determine the effect of sexual abuse history on chronic pain and its relation to opioid addiction and methadone maintenance treatment (MMT), we studied current women MMT patients, and women patients from a sexual abuse treatment center with no history of opioid addiction. Questionnaires included Chronic Pain, Chronic Severe Pain, the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale, the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES), and the Structured Interview for Disorders of Extreme Stress (complex-PTSD). Chronic severe pain was most prevalent among sexually abused women with no history of opioid addiction (64% of 25), followed by sexually abused MMT women (30.9% of 68), and MMT women with no history of sexual abuse (25% of 8, p = 0.01). Pain severity correlated with dissociation and complex-PTSD scores. The sexually abused non-MMT women had higher rates of high dissociation scores (DES ≥ 30) and complex-PTSD, but fewer obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms (scored ≥16) than the MMT sexually abused women. Chronic pain was found to be highly prevalent among sexually abused women, independent of being methadone-maintained with an addiction history. The high known prevalence of chronic pain among MMT patients, which may be attributable to opioid-induced hyperalgesia, may partially reflect the sexual abuse history, and should be targeted in future studies evaluating pain indices.     

Alcohol and cocaine abusers 6 months after traditional treatment: Do they fare as well as problem drinkers?

Problem drinkers (N = 49) and individuals presenting with both alcohol and cocaine problems (N = 51) admitted to a traditional 28-day alcoholism treatment milieu were compared on their psychosocial, psychological, neuropsychological functioning and substance abuse at admission as well as at six months posttreatment follow-up. On admission, alcohol and cocaine patients were younger, more likely to live alone or with their family of origin, to report having started using alcohol at an earlier age, to have fewer alcohol-related problems and to have fewer years of but more diversity in their substance abuse than the alcohol-only patients. Otherwise both groups were more similar than different on psychosocial, psychological and neuropsychological dimensions. At six-months posttreatment, both groups showed similar improvement on most dimensions of functioning measured. However, a significantly greater proportion of the alcohol and cocaine abusers admitted to having relapsed in the previous six months, reported significantly fewer average days of abstinence than the alcohol group since terminating treatment, and were more likely to present urine specimens indicative of recent substance abuse at the six-month follow-up interview. Thus, traditional approaches to alcoholism treatment may be less effective in establishing abstinence for individuals with both alcohol and cocaine problems. Adaptations to treatment to reduce the risk for relapse faced by alcohol and cocaine abusers in such milieu are discussed.     

Effectiveness of prize-based contingency management in a methadone maintenance program in China

Background

Methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) has been successfully scaled up nationally in China. However, the program faces problems of poor attendance and high rates of continued drug use. We assessed whether a contingency management (CM) intervention implemented by MMT clinic staff could improve treatment attendance and drug abstinence.

Methods

Eight MMT clinics in Guangdong province were randomly selected and divided into two groups. A total of 126 participants (55 in urban clinics and 71 in rural clinics) received CM during a 12-week trial, 120 participants (83 in urban clinics and 37 in rural clinics) received usual treatment (UT). Participants in the CM group had the opportunity to draw for prizes contingent on attending treatment daily and testing negative for morphine. Clinic- and individual-level outcomes were compared between the intervention and control groups.

Results

The retention rate and negative urine testing rate were 14.2% (P = 0.010) and 10.7% (P < 0.001) higher in the CM group compared to the UT group, respectively. Compared with participants who received UT, CM participants missed on average 7.3 fewer (P = 0.008) visits and were 1.91 (95% CI: 1.53–2.39) times more likely to submit a negative urine sample. All clinic- and individual- level effects of the intervention were observed at rural clinics, but the difference in retention rate between urban CM and UT clinics was not significant.

Conclusion

Although the frequency of monitoring and value of the incentives in this study was lower than in previous studies, the CM intervention significantly improved attendance and reduced drug use in China.     

强制隔离戒毒人员中美沙酮维持治疗的认知相关因素研究

目的:研究强制隔离戒毒人员对美沙酮维持治疗相关知识的认知情况及其相关因素,为针对性地开展健康宣传教育工作提供依据。方法:采用典型抽样与整群抽样结合的方法,使用自行设计的问卷对四川、湖南、广西三省共5家强制隔离戒毒所的1015名戒毒人员进行调查。结果:(1)强制隔离戒毒人员对美沙酮维持治疗相关知识的总体认知水平尚低,平均知晓率仅为48.0%。(2)认知情况男性好于女性,文化程度高者好于文化程度低者,吸毒史为10-20 a者好于吸毒史小于10 a和大于20 a者,曾经参加过美沙酮维持治疗者好于从未参加过者,所在戒毒所提供美沙酮维持治疗相关服务者好于未提供者。结论:强制隔离戒毒所应加强所内美沙酮维持治疗相关知识的宣传教育工作,重点关注女性、文化程度较低、汉族及吸毒史较长和较短的戒毒人员,对少数民族戒毒人员的宣传教育工作应当继续给予重视。同时大力推广强制隔离戒毒人员出所后的美沙酮维持治疗转介模式,并开始逐渐探索在强制隔离戒毒所内引入美沙酮维持治疗。