Cumulative effects of cognitive impairment and frailty on functional decline,falls and hospitalization: A four-year follow-up study with older adults

ObjectiveEvaluate the cumulative effects of cognitive impairment and frailty on functional decline, falls and hospitalization in older adults over a four-year period.MethodFour hundred five older adults (60–95 years; mean age: 70.62 ± 7.12 years), 57 % female. The frailty evaluation was performed using the clinical criteria of the Cardiovascular Health Study (CHS): weight loss, fatigue, weakness, slowness and low physical activity. Cognitive impairment was defined by cutoff scores of the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) based on schooling. Follow-up – functional decline was assessed using the Lawton&Brody scale of instrumental activities of daily living (IADL). An investigation was also performed of the occurrence of falls and admissions to the hospital in the previous twelve months.ResultsCognitive impairment was associated with admissions to the hospital and declines in the IADL category of using a telephone. Frailty was associated with admissions to hospital. Cumulative effects were observed for hospitalization and the decline in using the telephone and shopping. Frailty and cognitive impairment increased the risk of being admitted to hospital by 557 % and increased the risk of a decline in using the phone by 262% and shopping by 208%. No conditions were associated with the risk of falls.ConclusionThe combination of the MMSE and the CHS criteria was adequate for measuring the cumulative effects of cognitive impairment and frailty. Shared physiological mechanisms may explain the relation between cognitive impairment and frailty, but further investigations are needed in Brazil and other low/middle-income countries.     

主观认知下降及轻度认知障碍患者默认网络的静息态fMRI研究

目的 分析主观认知下降(SCD)和轻度认知障碍(MCI)默认网络(DMN)的异常改变,揭示其演变规律,以期为阿尔茨海默病(AD)的早期诊断提供影像学依据。方法 纳入SCD患者35例,MCI患者88例,健康对照(HC)者32名。收集受试者的相关临床数据、神经心理学量表评估数据以及3D-T1WI及静息态血氧水平依赖功能磁共振成像(BOLD-fMRI)数据。以后扣带回(PCC)作为种子点,分析SCD、MCI的DMN功能连接变化。结果 与HC组相比,SCD组双侧前扣带回(ACC)的功能连接降低,右侧额下回的功能连接增强;MCI组双侧海马及海马旁回、右侧额上回/左侧ACC、部分右侧颞中回/角回的功能连接降低,右侧中央前回、双侧岛叶/双侧额下回、右侧中扣带回/右腹侧ACC、右侧补充运动区、左侧小脑的功能连接增强。结论 随着疾病的进展,MCI在SCD的DMN功能连接变化的基础上出现了更为广泛的功能连接异常,提示了SCD是介于MCI和正常老年人之间的中间阶段。     

Cognitive decline according to amyloid uptake in patients with poststroke cognitive impairment

Background and purpose:Poststroke cognitive impairment (PSCI) is common, but the impact of β-amyloid (Aβ) on PSCI is uncertain. The proposed study will investigate amyloid pathology in participants with PSCI and how differently their cognition progress according to the amyloid pathology.Methods:This multicenter study was designed to be prospective and observational based on a projected cohort size of 196 participants with either newly developed cognitive impairment, or rapidly aggravated CI, within 3 months after acute cerebral infarction. They will undergo ¹⁸F-flutemetamol positron emission tomography at baseline and will be categorized as either amyloid-positive (A+) or amyloid-negative (A−) by visual rating. The primary outcome measures will be based on Korean Mini-Mental State Examination changes (baseline to 12 months) between the A+ and A− groups. The secondary outcome measures will be the dementia-conversion rate and changes in the Korean version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (baseline to 12 months) between the A+ and A− groups.Conclusions:This study will provide a broadened perspective on the impact of Aβ on the cause and outcomes of PSCI in clinical practice. Identifying amyloid pathology in patients with PSCI will help select patients who need more focused treatments such as acetylcholinesterase inhibitorsTrial registration:Clinical Research Information Service identifier: KCT0005086     

Near vision impairment predicts cognitive decline: data from the Hispanic Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly

OBJECTIVES: To estimate the association between sensory impairment and cognitive decline in older Mexican Americans. DESIGN: A prospective cohort study. SETTING: The Hispanic Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly from five southwestern states. PARTICIPANTS: The sample consisted of 2,140 noninstitutionalized Mexican Americans aged 65 and older followed from 1993/1994 until 2000/2001. MEASUREMENTS: The outcome, cognitive function decline, was assessed using the Mini-Mental State Examination blind version (MMSE-blind) at baseline and at 2, 5, and 7 years of follow-up. Other variables were near vision, distance vision, hearing, demographics (age, sex, marital status, living arrangements, and education), depressive symptoms, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, stroke, heart attack, and functional status. A general linear mixed model was used to estimate cognitive decline at follow-up. RESULTS: In a fully adjusted model, MMSE-blind scores of subjects with near vision impairment decreased 0.62 points (standard error (SE)=0.29, P=.03) over 2 years and decreased (slope of decline) 0.13 points (SE=0.07, P=.045) more per year than scores of subjects with adequate near vision. Other independent predictors of cognitive decline were baseline MMSE-blind score, age, education, marital status, depressive symptoms, and number of activity of daily living limitations. CONCLUSION: Near vision impairment, but not distance vision or hearing impairments, was associated with cognitive decline in older Mexican Americans.     

贫血对慢性心力衰竭患者住院期间死亡的影响

目的:了解慢性心力衰竭(CHF)患者贫血的发生率及其对住院期间死亡的影响。方法:收集2003-01-2008-06在我院住院的CHF患者的临床资料进行回顾性分析,根据患者血红蛋白(Hb)水平分为Hb正常组、轻度贫血组以及中重度贫血组3组。结果:贫血在CHF患者的发生率为32·5%;住院期间死亡患者的Hb、RBC均明显低于好转的患者(P0·01),贫血患者在住院期间的死亡率明显高于无贫血的患者(P0·01),以二分类Logistic回归住院期间死亡的危险因素进行分析得出:贫血的偏回归系数为1·296(P=0·039),优势比(OR)为3·655(95%CI:1·069~12·499);对于心功能NYHAⅢ~Ⅳ级的CHF患者,Hb的偏回归系数为-0·073(P=0·041),OR为0·93(95%CI:0·864~0·995)。结论:CHF患者贫血的发生率较高,贫血是CHF患者住院期间死亡的独立危险因素,Hb降低增加心功能Ⅲ~Ⅳ级的CHF患者住院期间的死亡。     

轻度认知损害患者的静息态功能磁共振成像

识别轻度认知损害(mild cognitive impairment,MCI)的意义在于能尽早进行干预并推迟甚至阻止其进展为痴呆.不过,由于受到诊断方法和标准的限制,MCI患者的诊断较为困难.近年来,静息态功能磁共振成像(resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging,rs-fMRI)作为一种新兴的功能影像学技术得到迅速发展,被广泛应用于MCI的研究,有可能为MCI的诊断提供客观的生物学标记物.文章就rs-fMRI在MCI中的研究进展进行了综述.     

Delirium is a risk factor for further cognitive decline in cognitively impaired hip fracture patients

BackgroundDelirium is a risk factor for dementia in cognitively intact patients. Whether an episode of delirium accelerates cognitive decline in patients with known dementia, is less explored.MethodsThis is a prospective follow-up study of 287 hip fracture patients with pre-fracture cognitive impairment. During the hospitalization, the patients were screened daily for delirium using the Confusion Assessment Method. Pre-fracture cognitive impairment was defined as a score of 3.44 or higher on the pre-fracture Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly Short Form (IQCODE-SF). At follow-up after 4–6 months, the caregivers rated cognitive changes emerging after the fracture using the IQCODE-SF, and the patients were tested with the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE). A sub-group of the patients had a pre-fracture MMSE score which was used to calculate the yearly decline on the MMSE in patients with and without delirium.Results201 of the 287 patients developed delirium in the acute phase. In linear regression analysis, delirium was a significant and independent predictor of a more prominent cognitive decline at follow-up measured by the IQCODE-SF questionnaire (p = 0.002). Among patients having a pre-fracture MMSE score, the patients developing delirium had a median (IQR) yearly decline of 2.4 points (1.1–3.9), compared to 1.0 points (0–1.9) in the group without delirium (p = 0.001, Mann–Whitney test).ConclusionsHip fracture patients with pre-fracture dementia run a higher risk of developing delirium. Delirium superimposed on dementia is a significant predictor of an accelerated further cognitive decline.     

Insulin resistance possible risk factor for cognitive impairment in fibromialgic patients

To evaluate glucose metabolism and/or insulin resistance (IR) in 96 patients with Fibromyalgia (FM), associated or not to cognitive impairment. We investigated glucose metabolism in 96 FM patients. Enrolled patients were divided into two groups: 48 patients with memory deficit (group A) and 48 without memory deficit (control group). We evaluated glucose and insulin levels after a 2 h-Oral-Glucose-Tolerance-Test (2 h-OGTT) and insulin resistance (IR) by the homeostasis model assessment formula (HOMA). Body Mass Index (BMI), waist-to-hip-ratio (WHR), anxiety level, fasting plasma insulin and Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory agents use were higher in patients with FM with memory impairment; while age, sex, waist circumference, education level, fasting plasma glucose, glycate hemoglobin, triglycerides, blood lipid profile, C- Reactivity-Protein (CRP), blood pressure and smoking habits were similar in both groups. Following OGTT the prevalence of glucose metabolism abnormalities was significantly higher in group A. IR was present in 79 % patients, of whom 23 % had also impaired glucose tolerance, 4 % newly diagnosed diabetes mellitus and 52 % IR only. Obesity and overweight prevailed in group A. IR, but not BMI or WHR was associated to an increased risk of memory impairment (OR?=?2,6; 95 % CI: 1,22–3,7). The results of this study suggest that IR may represent a risk factor for memory impairment in fibromialgic patients.     

The hierarchy of functional loss associated with cognitive decline in older persons

OBJECTIVES: We studied a representative cohort of community-dwelling elderly persons to (i) examine the relationship between the loss of specific functional activities and cognitive status at the time of these losses, (ii) compare the cognitive status of participants who have and have not lost independence in these functional activities, and (iii) determine whether a hierarchical scale of functional loss is associated with declining cognitive status. METHODS: A cohort of 5874 community-dwelling persons aged 65 years and older from the Canadian Study of Health and Aging I and II were analyzed. At baseline and 5 years later, cognitive status with the Modified Mini-Mental State Examination (3MS) and functional status with 14 Older American Resources and Services (OARS) items were measured. For each OARS functional item, the mean 3MS scores for persons who lost independence during the 5-year period versus those who did not were compared. RESULTS: For each functional item, the 5-year decline in 3MS scores of persons who lost independence were significantly greater than those who remained independent (e.g., ability to do finances), with an 18-point decline for those who lost independence and a 2-point decline for those who retained independence. A hierarchy of functional items existed, with instrumental activities of daily living (ADLs) (e.g., shopping, banking, and cooking) being lost at higher cognitive scores than basic ADL items (e.g., eating, dressing, and walking), although there was some overlap. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first prospective study using a large representative cohort of elderly persons to demonstrate that progressive cognitive decline is associated with a specific pattern of loss of functional tasks. Clear cognitive thresholds at which development of dependency in OARS functional items occurred. By providing estimates of the cognitive status of persons at the time at which they developed dependency in specific functional items, a natural hierarchy of functional loss associated with cognitive decline emerged. For caregivers, clinicians, and health policy makers, this information can help anticipate the pattern of functional decline and the subsequent care needs of persons with declining cognition, potentially improving the quality of life of these persons and their caregivers and playing an important part in health care planning.     

Fall risk factors in elderly patients with cognitive impairment on rehabilitation wards

Background:   Confusion and cognitive impairment, are risk factors for falls in hospital. Evidence for reducing falls in cognitively-impaired patients is limited and to date no intervention has consistently been shown to reduce falls in this group of patients. We explored characteristics associated with falls in cognitively-impaired patients in a rehabilitation setting.
Methods:   In a prospective observational study, 825 consecutive patients were studied. Patient characteristics were assessed on admission. Factors predisposing to falls in cognitively-impaired patients were identified.
Results:   Cognitively-impaired patients were more likely to be fallers or recurrent fallers and more likely to sustain an injury than cognitively intact patients. They had a higher incidence of nursing home discharges and a significantly higher mortality. Logistic regression analysis showed that an unsafe gait ( P  < 0.001; 95% confidence interval, 0.13–0.57) was the only independent risk factor for falls in this group of patients. There was a cumulative higher risk of falling associated with an unsafe gait demonstrable throughout the patients' stay.
Conclusion:   Unsafe gait was the only significant independent risk factor for falls among cognitively-impaired patients in a rehabilitation environment. Interventions that improve gait patterns or that enhance safety for patients with abnormal gait are required if fall reduction in this group of patients is to be achieved.     

腔隙性脑梗死患者中高同型半胱氨酸水平与认知功能障碍的研究

目的探讨血浆高同型半胱氨酸(HCY)水平是否与血管性认知功能障碍有关。方法以合肥市第二人民医院神经内科162例明确诊断的腔隙性脑梗死患者为研究对象,将入组患者血浆的HCY水平划分为高HCY(82例)和正常HCY(对照组,80例)两组,并通过对这两组患者进行多维度的神经心理学成套量表测查,来评估其认知功能。组间比较采用t检验。结果与对照组相比,高HCY组患者在空间工作记忆(N-back)和执行功能(Stroop试验)方面成绩差异有统计学意义(t=8.995～64.305,P均0.05),而在长时记忆中的自由回忆任务中(AVLT)的成绩差异无统计学意义(P均0.05)。结论血浆高HCY水平可能与脑梗死患者的认知功能障碍有关,主要表现为对其工作记忆以及执行功能的影响突出,而对其长时记忆障碍的影响并不显著。     

无痴呆型血管性认知障碍患者认知功能量表的研究

目的 研究无痴呆型血管性认知障碍（VCIND）的认知损害特征,探讨蒙特利尔认知评估量表中文版（MoCA）在东营地区VCIND人群中筛查的应用价值,并与简易精神状态量表（MMSE）进行比较。方法 对92例东营地区的受试者进行成套神经心理学测试,包括视空间执行功能、记忆力、命名、注意力等内容,研究VCIND的认知功能特点,并进行MoCA和MMSE量表的比较。采用SPSS 17.0统计软件进行处理,计量资料用均数±标准差（x珋±s）表示,组间比较采用独立样本t检验,计数资料应用χ2检验,相关分析采用Spearman相关性检验,P〈0.05为差异有统计学意义。利用受试者工作特征曲线（ROC）分析MoCA筛查VCIND患者的灵敏度和特异度,并确定其最佳分界值。结果 受教育程度对MoCA得分有显著影响,受教育年限≤9年者：MoCA评分除注意力和语言流畅性外,视空间执行功能、命名、计算力、抽象思维、记忆力及定向力各分项在两组间差异有统计学意义（t值分别为3.632、2.636、2.997、4.325、8.514、3.230,均P〈0.05）。受教育程度〉9年者：MoCA评分除注意力、计算力、定向力及语言流畅性外,视空间执行功能、命名、抽象思维及记忆力各分项在两组间差异有统计学意义（t值分别为1.962、3.579、3.941、5.241,均P〈0.05）。受教育程度≤9年者：MoCA的筛查最佳分界值为24/25分,此时筛查VCIND的敏感度为87.5%,特异度为100%;受教育程度〉9年者：MoCA的筛查最佳分界值为26/27分,此时筛查VCIND的敏感度为94.4%,特异度为70.0%。结论 （1）VCIND患者存在包括视空间执行功能、记忆力、抽象思维、计算力等多个领域认知功能的损害;（2）MoCA是筛查VCIND的一个简便、有效的工具,MoCA用于VCIND的筛查优于MMSE。     

Elderly patients with hip fracture with positive affect have better functional recovery over 2 years

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate whether patients with hip fracture with high positive affect had better functioning than those with low positive affect or depressive symptoms in three performance-based measures over 2 years after the fracture. DESIGN: Longitudinal study with assessments at baseline and 2, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months posthospitalization. SETTING: Community. PARTICIPANTS: Four hundred thirty-two patients, aged 65 and older, hospitalized for hip fracture in Baltimore, Maryland, between 1990 and 1991. MEASUREMENTS: High and low positive affect and depressive symptoms were based on baseline Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale score, usual and rapid walking speed, one chair stand, demographic factors, comorbidities, and history of cognitive impairment. RESULTS: At each follow-up point, respondents with high positive affect at baseline (36% of sample) had faster walking and chair stand speeds than those with low positive affect (13%) and depressive symptoms (51%). For example, at 6 months, the mean usual walking pace was 0.4 m/s (standard error (SE)=0.02) for respondents with high positive affect, versus 0.4 m/s (SE=0.03) and 0.35 m/s (SE=0.02) for patients with low positive affect and depressive symptoms, respectively; adjusted differences were 0.02 (95% confidence interval (CI)=-0.06-0.09) and 0.06 (95% CI=0.01-0.11). Respondents with high positive affect appeared to achieve their maximum improvement in usual pace approximately 6 months before other respondents, but this interaction was not statistically significant. Respondents with consistently high positive affect had the best functioning over the follow-up period. CONCLUSION: High positive affect seems to have a beneficial influence on performance-based functioning after hip fracture.     

老年脑梗死患者认知功能下降的特点及危险因素分析

目的 探讨老年脑梗死患者认知功能下降的特点及其影响因素。方法 采取横断面研究,在2014年11月13日至2014年12月21日对江苏省如皋市江安镇人群进行调查。样本来自“如皋衰老纵向研究”,纳入31个村的1 788名对象,年龄70~84岁,均为汉族,其中男830名,女958名。确认脑梗死病史根据二级以上医院神经科诊断或头部CT证实。认知功能的评价采用改良长谷川痴呆量表,对该人群的定向力、记忆力、近记忆力、计算力及常识5个维度进行评价,总分21.5为无认知功能障碍,≤21.5为有认知功能障碍。采用多因素Logistic回归分析老年脑梗死患者认知功能下降的危险因素。结果 (1)1 788名受检者中,合并脑梗死病史133例(7.4%),无脑梗死1 655名。合并脑梗死患者高血压的比例高于无脑梗死组[63.9%(85例)比41.7%(690例)],高密度脂蛋白胆固醇水平低于无脑梗死组[(1.40±0.29)mmol/L比(1.47±0.33)mmol/L],差异均有统计学意义(均P0.05)。(2)合并脑梗死患者在定向力和计算力方面存在部分受损,总体认知功能评分为(20±7)分,较无脑梗死患者的(21±6)明显下降,两组比较差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。(3)133例脑梗死患者中,存在认知功能障碍的76例,发生率为57.1%,其中女性59例。认知功能障碍患者血肌酐平均值为(59±15)μmol/L,较无认知障碍者(66±14)μmol/L明显降低,差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。(4)多因素Logistic回归分析显示,小学以下教育程度(OR=2.86,95%CI:2.19~3.72)、女性(OR=1.85,95%CI:1.50~2.28),是老年脑梗死患者认知功能下降的独立危险因素,较高血肌酐浓度(OR=0.96,95%CI:0.95~0.97)是保护因素。结论 脑梗死后的老年人总体认知功能下降,尤其是定向力和计算力方面受损明显。小学以下文化程度和女性是发生认知障碍的独立危险因素,较高水平血肌酐可能具有一定的保护作用。     

Low well-being, cognitive impairment and visual impairment associated with functional disabilities in elderly Japanese patients with diabetes mellitus

Background:   The objective of this study is to examine the important factors associated with functional disabilities in elderly patients with diabetes mellitus.
Methods:   This was a multicenter cross-sectional study. A total of 1135 elderly diabetic outpatients aged over 65 years in 10 hospitals participated in our study. Functional disabilities were assessed with questionnaires on the instrumental activity of daily livings (IADL), intellectual activity and social role using the Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology Index of Competence. Cognitive function and well-being were assessed by the mini-mental state examination and morale scale, respectively.
Results:   The patients were divided into three age groups. The oldest (≥ 80 years) group reported significant high prevalence of functional disabilities (10% to 36%) compared to the youngest (65–69 years) group (4% to 20%). The number of vascular complications (≥ 4) was associated with a 5.5–8.8 fold increased risk of disabilities relating to the tasks on IADL (using public transportation, shopping, preparing meals and paying bills). Using multiple logistic regression analyses, low scores of morale scales (≤ 7) and mini-mental state examination (≤ 23) were significantly associated with disabilities on the IADL, intellectual activity and social role after adjustment for age, gender, BMI, duration of diabetes, HbA1c, insulin treatment, microangiopathy and macroangiopathy. Insulin treatment and low visual acuity were also associated with the IADL after adjustment for the other variables.
Conclusions:   Older age, insulin treatment, low well-being, cognitive impairment, and visual impairment were independently associated with the functional disabilities of elderly patients with diabetes mellitus.     

Screening for mild cognitive impairment in elderly ambulatory patients with cognitive complaints

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Identification of patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) is strongly recommended because of their increased risk of dementia. Two brief global cognitive instruments, the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the Clock Drawing Test (CDT), were examined as useful screening methods for MCI. METHODS: The sensitivity and specificity of MMSE and CDT, scored using the Sunderland and Wolf-Klein methods, were evaluated in 113 elderly individuals with three different MCI subtypes: amnestic, multiple domain impairments, and single non-memory domain. Diagnoses were made on the basis of extensive clinical and neuropsychometric assessment. RESULTS: Used alone, MMSE and CDT at standard cut-offs were highly specific (about 0.80) but rather insensitive (less than 0.50) to all MCI subtypes. By contrast, when used in combination, an abnormal result on either MMSE or CDT scored by the Sunderland method had a specificity of 0.69 [0.57-0.81] and a sensitivity of 0.75 [0.64-0.87] for multiple domain impairments MCI. Results were similar for MMSE in combination with CDT scored by the Wolf-Klein method (specificity 0.71 [0.59-0.83]; sensitivity 0.68 [0.56-0.80]). CONCLUSIONS: MMSE and CDT alone are not valid screening methods for MCI detection. In combination, they reach fair sensitivity and specificity for the multiple domain impairment MCI subtype. However, some theoretical concerns relating to this subtype, together with the uncertainty that still lingers about its prognostic value, caution against routine use of MMSE and CDT as MCI screening instruments.