The Glands of the Stomach in Relation to Pernicious An?mia; with Special Reference to the Glands in the Pyloric Region: (Section of Medicine)

The researches have had in view the anatomical localization of the anti-anæmic factor (Castle''s “intrinsic factor”) in the stomach.As the pig''s stomach is peculiarly constructed, having a so-called cardiac-gland region, a fundus-gland region and a pyloric gland region continued in the glands of Brunner in the duodenum, preparations have been made from each of these regions, and tests of the effectiveness of each of these separate portions have been made in cases of pernicious anæmia. It has previously been pointed out (Meulengracht and Schiødt) that the production of hydrochloric acid, pepsin and rennin was confined to the glands of the fundus region (peptic glands) with their oxyntic cells and chief cells.The experiments showed that the extract of the fundus-gland portion was inactive in cases of pernicious anæmia, that of the so-called cardiac-gland portion was mildly active, that of the pyloric-gland portion was strongly active, and that of the duodenal portion was also strongly active. The feebler activity of the cardiac portion might be shown to be a result of the smaller number of glands to the unit area in that region.The conclusion drawn from the experiments is that the so-called cardiac glands, the pyloric glands and the Brunner glands in the duodenum, which anatomically may be said to be very nearly identical, may also be taken to be functionally identical, at any rate with regard to the production of the anti-anæmic factor.This collective gland region, which it is proposed to call the pyloric-gland region, is the site of the production of the anti-anæmic factor. There is thus attributed to these glands a definite, well-defined and vitally important function.It is further concluded from the experiments that pernicious anæmia in human beings is due to atrophy and inactivity of that part of the stomach which comprises the pyloric-gland region. The experiments may thus be said to have anatomically localized pernicious anæmia in human beings.Experimental pernicious anæmia will presumably be producible by the deliberate removal of the pyloric-gland region.Stomach preparations for the treatment of pernicious anæmia will with advantage be producible from the pyloric-gland region alone.     

An?sthesia in Chest Surgery,with Special Reference to Controlled Respiration and Cyclopropane: (Section of An?sthetics)

Problems in chest surgery: Cases with prolonged toxæmia or amyloid disease require an anæsthetic agent of low toxicity. When sputum or blood are present in the tracheobronchial tree the anæsthesia should abolish reflex distrubances and excessive sputum be removed by suction. The technique should permit the use of a high oxygen atmosphere; controlled respiration with cyclopropane or ether fulfil these requirements. Open pneumothorax is present when a wound of the chest wall allows air to pass in and out of the pleural cavity. The lung on the affected side collapses and the mediastinum moves over and partly compresses the other lung.The dangers of an open pneumothorax: (1) Paradoxical respiration—the lung on the affected side partially inflates on expiration and collapses on inspiration. Part of the air entering the good lung has been shuttled back from the lung on the affected side and is therefore vitiated. Full expansion of the sound lung is handicapped by the initial displacement of the mediastinum which increases on inspiration. The circulation becomes embarrassed.(2) Vicious circle coughing. During a paroxysm of coughing dyspnœa will occur. This accentuates paradoxical respiration and starts a vicious circle. Death from asphyxia may result.Special duties of the anæsthetist: (1) To carry out or supervise continuous circulatory resuscitation. During a thoracotomy a drip blood transfusion maintains normal blood-pressure and pulse-rate.(2) To maintain effcient respiration.Positive pressure anæsthesia: Risk of impacting secretions in smaller bronchi with subsequent atelectasis; eventual risk of CO₂ poisoning without premonitory signs.Controlled respiration: (1) How it is produced. (2) Its uses in chest surgery.Controlled respiration means that the anæsthetist, having abolished the active respiratory efforts of the patient, maintains an efficient tidal exchange by rhythmic squeezing of the breathing bag. This may be done mechanically by Crafoord''s modification of Frenkner''s spiropulsator or by hand.Active respiration will cease (i) if the patient''s CO₂ is lowered sufficiently by hyperventilation, (ii) if the patient''s respiratory centre is depressed sufficiently by sedative and anæsthetic drugs, and (iii) by a combination of (i) and (ii) of less degree.The author uses the second method, depressing the respiratory centre with omnoponscopolamine, pentothal sodium, and then cycloprȯpane. The CO₂ absorption method is essential for this technique, and this and controlled respiration should be mastered by the anæsthetist with a familiar agent and used at first only in uncomplicated cases.The significance of cardiac arrhythmias occuring with cyclopropane is discussed.The place of the other available anæsthetic agents is discussed particularly on the advisability of using local anæsthesia for the drainage of empyema or lung abscess.Pharyngeal airway or endotracheal tube? Anæsthesia may be maintained with a pharyngeal airway in many cases but intubation must be used when tracheobronchial suction may be necessary and when there may be difficulty in maintaining an unobstructed airway.A one-lung anæsthesia is ideal for pneumonectomy. This may be obtained by endotracheal anæsthesia after bronchial tamponage of the affected side (Crafoord, v. fig. 6b) or by an endobronchial intubation of the sound side (v. figs. 9b and 9c). Endobronchial placing of the breathing tube may be performed “blind”. Before deciding on blind bronchial intubation, the anæsthetist must examine X-ray films for any abnormality deviating the trachea or bronchi. Though the right bronchus may be easily intubated blindly as a rule, there is the risk of occluding the orifice of the upper lobe bronchus (fig. 9d) when the patient will become cyanosed. If the tube bevel is facing its orifice the risk of occlusion will be decreased (fig. 9c).Greater accuracy in placing the tube can be effected by inserting it under direct vision. Instruments for performing this manœuvre are described.In lobectomy for bronchiectasis the anæsthetist must try to prevent the spread of infection to other parts. Ideally, the bronchus of the affected lobe should be plugged with ribbon gauze (Crafoord, v. fig. 6c) or a suction catheter with a baby balloon on it placed in the affected bronchus. In the presence of a large bronchopleural fistula controlled respiration cannot be established during operation. As the surgeon is rarely able to plug the fistula, if pneumonectomy is to be performed intubation for a one-lung anæsthesia is the best method. During other procedures it is essential to maintain quiet respiration.In war casualties it is almost always possible, with the technique described, to leave the lung on the affected side fully expanded and thus frequently to restore normal respiratory physiology. Co-operation between surgeon and anæsthetist is essential.     

The Organization of Hospital Services for Casualties due to the Bombing of Cities,Based on Experience Gained in Barcelona—with Special Reference to the Classification of Casualties: (Section of Orthop?dics)

(1) Difference between modern “total population” war and old-fashioned war. Difference between bombing of (a) military objectives and (b) civilian population.(a) The heavy bomb, e.g. 750 lb., with large fragments, upward throw, great destruction of buildings.(b) The light bomb with finger nail fragments, horizontal throw, great velocity.There is in addition the incendiary bomb, little used in Barcelona because the buildings are built of stone and concrete.(2) Aerial bombing of a town produces injuries needing more immediate hospitalization than most front-line wounds. At the same time it is possible in a town to organize rapid collection of patients and their immediate transfer to hospital.(3) Experience shows that it is most desirable to make this transfer of patients to hospital a primary consideration. On arrival they are “sorted” and minor injuries are given First Aid treatment and sent home, others are fully examined, classified, and dispatched to the theatres on a priority list, to nearby wards for resuscitation, to wards for rest, or sent on to plaster rooms for splintage, or to a neurosurgical centre.(4) First-aid posts in a town should be in hospitals and treat superficial injuries, &c., after primary sorting in the hospital reception room.(5) First-aid posts in outlying areas should carry out the same function for the same type of cases; all the more seriously wounded, including those with tiny penetrating wounds, should be dispatched without first aid treatment direct to hospital.(6) Hospital arrangements, for circulation of ambulances, for sorting, undressing of patients, docketing of valuables, &c.(7) Classification must be carried out by surgeons of experience and judgment. They must regard not only a standard priority list but the particular clinical picture and prognosis in each case.(8) The surgeon will furthermore draft the cases with regard to the special abilities of the surgical units available, e.g. chest, abdomen, or limbs.(9) Review of wounds in limbs, chest, abdomen, and head, caused by fragments from heavy bombs or by splinters from small light bombs.(10) Injuries from falling masonry.(11) Standard classification by urgency of operation.(12) Classification re possible early evacuation.