Gene × Environment interaction and resilience: effects of child maltreatment and serotonin, corticotropin releasing hormone, dopamine, and oxytocin genes

In this investigation, gene-environment interaction effects in predicting resilience in adaptive functioning among maltreated and nonmaltreated low-income children (N = 595) were examined. A multicomponent index of resilient functioning was derived and levels of resilient functioning were identified. Variants in four genes (serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region, corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1, dopamine receptor D4-521C/T, and oxytocin receptor) were investigated. In a series of analyses of covariance, child maltreatment demonstrated a strong negative main effect on children's resilient functioning, whereas no main effects for any of the genotypes of the respective genes were found. However, gene-environment interactions involving genotypes of each of the respective genes and maltreatment status were obtained. For each respective gene, among children with a specific genotype, the relative advantage in resilient functioning of nonmaltreated compared to maltreated children was stronger than was the case for nonmaltreated and maltreated children with other genotypes of the respective gene. Across the four genes, a composite of the genotypes that more strongly differentiated resilient functioning between nonmaltreated and maltreated children provided further evidence of genetic variations influencing resilient functioning in nonmaltreated children, whereas genetic variation had a negligible effect on promoting resilience among maltreated children. Additional effects were observed for children based on the number of subtypes of maltreatment children experienced, as well as for abuse and neglect subgroups. Finally, maltreated and nonmaltreated children with high levels of resilience differed in their average number of differentiating genotypes. These results suggest that differential resilient outcomes are based on the interaction between genes and developmental experiences.     

Emotion and resilience: a multilevel investigation of hemispheric electroencephalogram asymmetry and emotion regulation in maltreated and nonmaltreated children

The current study was a multilevel investigation of resilience, emotion regulation, and hemispheric electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry in a sample of maltreated and nonmaltreated school age children. It was predicted that the positive emotionality and increased emotion regulatory ability associated with resilient functioning would be associated with relatively greater left frontal EEG activity. The study also investigated differences in pathways to resilience between maltreated and nonmaltreated children. The findings indicated that EEG asymmetry across central cortical regions distinguished between resilient and nonresilient children, with greater left hemisphere activity characterizing those who were resilient. In addition, nonmaltreated children showed greater left hemisphere EEG activity across parietal cortical regions. There was also a significant interaction between resilience, maltreatment status, and gender for asymmetry at anterior frontal electrodes, where nonmaltreated resilient females had greater relative left frontal activity compared to more right frontal activity exhibited by resilient maltreated females. An observational measure of emotion regulation significantly contributed to the prediction of resilience in the maltreated and nonmaltreated children, but EEG asymmetry in central cortical regions independently predicted resilience only in the maltreated group. The findings are discussed in terms of their meaning for the development of resilient functioning.     

Diverse patterns of neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children

Cortisol regulation was investigated in a sample of school-aged maltreated (n = 175) and demographically comparable low-income nonmaltreated (n = 209) children in the context of a day camp research program. Overall group differences between maltreated and nonmaltreated children were not found for average morning or average afternoon cortisol levels. However, significant variations were found that were based on the subtypes of maltreatment that the children had experienced. Maltreated children who had been both physically and sexually abused (as well as neglected or emotionally maltreated) exhibited substantial elevations in morning cortisol levels; children who had high (>1 SD) cortisol levels in both the morning and afternoon were also overrepresented in the multiple abuse group. Developmental timing of maltreatment did not account for these group differences, whereas the severity of sexual abuse was implicated. In contrast to the multiple abuse group, a subgroup of physically abused children showed evidence of a trend toward lower morning cortisol relative to nonmaltreated children with a significantly smaller decrease in cortisol levels from morning to afternoon. The findings are discussed in terms of the diversity of atypical cortisol regulation patterns that are exhibited among maltreated children.     

The impact of child maltreatment and psychopathology on neuroendocrine functioning.

Cortisol regulation was investigated in a sample of school-aged maltreated (n = 167) and demographically comparable low-income nonmaltreated (n = 204) boys and girls in the context of a day camp research program. The presence of clinical-level internalizing and clinical-level externalizing symptomatology was determined through adult report and child self report. Children who exhibited clinical-level internalizing problems only, clinical-level externalizing problems only, and comorbid clinical-level internalizing and extemalizing problems were identified. Clinical-level cases were more prevalent among the maltreated children. Maltreated children with clinical-level internalizing problems were distinguished by higher morning, afternoon, and average daily cortisol levels across the week of camp attendance. In contrast, nonmaltreated boys with clinical-level externalizing problems emerged as distinct in terms of low levels of morning and average daily levels of cortisol. Maltreated children with comorbid clinical-level internalizing and externalizing problems were more likely not to show the expected diumal decrease in cortisol. The findings are discussed in terms of the joint impact of maltreatment and different forms of psychopathology on neuroendocrine regulation.     

Child maltreatment and allostatic load: consequences for physical and mental health in children from low-income families

Child maltreatment and biomarkers of allostatic load were investigated in relation to child health problems and psychological symptomatology. Participants attended a summer research day camp and included 137 maltreated and 110 nonmaltreated low-income children, who were aged 8 to 10 years (M = 9.42) and racially and ethnically diverse; 52% were male. Measurements obtained included salivary cortisol and dehydroepiandosterone, body mass index, waist-hip ratio, and blood pressure; these indicators provided a composite index of allostatic load. Child self-report and camp adult-rater reports of child symptomatology were obtained; mothers provided information on health problems. The results indicated that higher allostatic load and child maltreatment status independently predicted poorer health outcomes and greater behavior problems. Moderation effects indicated that allostatic load was related to somatic complaints, attention problems, and thought problems only among maltreated children. Risks associated with high waist-hip ratio, low morning cortisol, and high morning dehydroepiandosterone also were related to depressive symptoms only for maltreated children. The results support an allostatic load conceptualization of the impact of high environmental stress and child abuse and neglect on child health and behavioral outcomes and have important implications for long-term physical and mental health.     

Morning cortisol Levels in preschool-aged foster children: differential effects of maltreatment type

Maltreated foster children are subjected to a range of early adverse experiences, including neglect, abuse, and multiple caregiver disruptions. Research suggests that such disturbances alter the development and subsequent functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system. The current study was designed to investigate morning cortisol levels in 117 foster children and 60 low-income, nonmaltreated children. Maltreatment and foster care placement experiences were coded from official records. Analyses revealed that the foster children were significantly more likely than the nonmaltreated children to have low morning cortisol levels. Additionally, specific maltreatment experiences were significantly associated with the foster children's morning cortisol levels. Foster children with low morning cortisol levels experienced more severe physical neglect than the other foster children. In contrast, foster children with high morning cortisol levels experienced more severe emotional maltreatment. These results suggest that specific early adverse experiences have differential effects on the functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system.     

心理弹性在大学生心理危机预防中的作用

目的:探讨心理弹性在大学生心理危机预防中的作用。方法:应用心理弹性量表(CD-RISC)、大学生危机人格测查问卷、危机脆弱性问卷和自我压弹量表对823名大学生进行团体施测。结果:1大学生在心理弹性总水平上,大四高于大二、大三(P0.05),自我压弹大四高于大二(P0.05)、城市高于农村(t=-2.372,P0.05);2除精神影响因素外,心理弹性其他因素及总分与危机人格各因素及总分、危机脆弱性存在显著负相关(r=-0.104~-0.518,P0.01),与自我压弹存在显著的正相关(r=0.118~0.558,P0.01),高、低心理弹性者在危机人格(t=12.203,P0.01)、危机脆弱性(t=12.134,P0.01)、自我压弹(t=-13.017,P0.01)存在显著差异。结论:心理弹性、自我压弹分别与危机人格、危机脆弱性存在显著的负相关,提高大学生的心理弹性水平可以达到预防大学生心理危机发生的目的。     

Interactive effects of corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1, serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region, and child maltreatment on diurnal cortisol regulation and internalizing symptomatology

Within an allostatic load framework, the effect of Gene × Environment (G × E) interactions on diurnal cortisol regulation and internalizing symptomatology were investigated. Variation in the corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1 (CRHR1) TAT haplotype and serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) was determined in a sample of maltreated (n = 238, 21.4% with early physical and sexual abuse) and nonmaltreated (n = 255) children (M age = 10.08) participating in a summer research camp. Internalizing and depressive symptoms were assessed by other and self-report. G × E effects for CRHR1 and maltreatment and early abuse on diurnal cortisol regulation were observed; CRHR1 variation was related to cortisol dysregulation only among maltreated children. Early abuse and high internalizing symptoms also interacted to predict atypical diurnal cortisol regulation. The interaction of CRHR1, 5-HTTLPR, and child maltreatment (G × G × E) identified a subgroup of maltreated children with high internalizing symptoms who shared the same combination of the two genes. The findings support an allostatic load perspective on the effects of the chronic stress associated with child maltreatment on cortisol regulation and internalizing symptomatology as moderated by genetic variation.     

Dimensions of child maltreatment and children's adjustment: contributions of developmental timing and subtype.

This investigation examined the dimensions of developmental timing, subtype, and severity of maltreatment and their relations with child adaptation. The 814 children who participated in a summer day camp, 492 of whom were maltreated and 322 of whom were nonmaltreated comparison children, were assessed by camp counselors on their internalizing and externalizing symptomatology, aggressive, withdrawn, and cooperative behavior, and on personality dimensions of ego resiliency and ego control, and were rated by peers on disruptive, aggressive, and cooperative behavior. The severity within each subtype of maltreatment and the developmental period in which each subtype occurred were examined through hierarchical regression analyses. Additionally, children with similar timing or subtype patterns were grouped to explore diversity in outcomes. Results highlighted the role of severity of emotional maltreatment in the infancy-toddlerhood period and physical abuse during the preschool period in predicting externalizing behavior and aggression. Severity of physical neglect, particularly when it occurred during the preschool period, was associated with internalizing symptomatology and withdrawn behavior. Additionally, maltreatment during the school-age period contributed significant variance after earlier maltreatment was controlled. Chronic maltreatment, especially with onset during infancy-toddlerhood or preschool periods, was linked with more maladaptive outcomes. The implications of measuring multiple dimensions for improving research in child maltreatment are discussed.     

Cognitive and emotional differences in young maltreated children: a translational application of dynamic skill theory

Through a translational approach, dynamic skill theory enhances the understanding of the variation in the behavioral and cognitive presentations of a high-risk population-maltreated children. Two studies illustrate the application of normative developmental constructs from a dynamic skills perspective to samples of young maltreated and nonmaltreated children. Each study examines the emotional and cognitive development of maltreated children with attention to their developing world view or negativity bias and cognitive skills. Across both studies, maltreated children demonstrate negativity bias when compared to their nonmaltreated counterparts. Cognitive complexity demonstrated by the maltreated children is dependent upon a positive or negative context. Positive problem solving is more difficult for maltreated children when compared to their nonmaltreated counterparts. Differences by maltreatment type, severity, timing of the abuse, and identity of the perpetrator are also delineated, and variation in the resulting developmental trajectories in each case is explored. This translation of dynamic skill theory, as applied to maltreated children, enhances our basic understanding of their functioning, clarifies the nature of their developmental differences, and underscores the need for early intervention.     

Correlations between cortisol level and internalizing disposition of young children are increased by selecting optimal sampling times and aggregating data

To determine the optimal time for testing the association between personality traits and cortisol levels, and the number of sampling days needed for reliable results to be obtained for preschool-aged children, ambulatory salivary sampling for cortisol was performed on 39 preschoolers at four different times for 10 consecutive school days. A repeated-measure ANOVA revealed a significant day effect, time effect, and day by time interaction. Further tests of day effect revealed that within-subject cortisol levels differed significantly in the early morning, early afternoon, and late afternoon cortisol data, but not in the late morning; group average levels of cortisol assessed in the early mornings are significantly different among the days, so are the ones measured in early and late afternoon. Mid-afternoon cortisol levels showed the most significant day effect and the highest correlation with internalizing disposition. In addition, the probability of finding significant correlations between cortisol levels and internalizing disposition increased with a greater number of aggregated cortisol measures. The tentative conclusion is that to avoid under-representation of the correlations between cortisol levels and personality variables, both sampling time selection and data aggregation are important.     

Normalizing the development of cortisol regulation in maltreated infants through preventive interventions

Longitudinal effects of child maltreatment on cortisol regulation in infants from age 1 to 3 years were investigated in the context of a randomized preventive intervention trial. Thirteen-month-old infants from maltreating families (N = 91) and their mothers were randomly assigned to one of three intervention conditions: child-parent psychotherapy, psychoeducational parenting intervention, and a control group involving standard community services (CS). A fourth group of infants from nonmaltreating families (N = 52) and their mothers comprised a nonmaltreated comparison (NC) group. The two active interventions were combined into one maltreated intervention (MI) group for statistical analyses. Saliva samples were obtained from children at 10:00 a.m. before beginning a laboratory observation session with their mothers when the children were 13 months of age (preintervention), 19 months (midintervention), 26 months (postintervention), and 38 months (1-year postintervention follow-up). At the initial assessment, no significant differences among groups in morning cortisol were observed. Latent growth curve analyses examined trajectories of cortisol regulation over time. Beginning at midintervention, divergence was found among the groups. Whereas the MI group remained indistinguishable from the NC group across time, the CS group progressively evinced lower levels of morning cortisol, statistically differing from the MI and NC groups. Results highlight the value of psychosocial interventions for early child maltreatment in normalizing biological regulatory processes.     

Diversity in adjustment of maltreated children: factors associated with resilient functioning

Many decades of research indicate that physical abuse and neglect are associated with substantial risk for maladaptation across many developmental tasks of childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Recent investigations, however, indicate that in spite of elevated risk for negative outcomes, some abused and neglected children demonstrate relatively positive adjustment and success in developmental tasks. An overview of studies of resilient functioning among maltreated children is provided, and results indicate that although a proportion of maltreated children do appear to be resilient to harsh and inadequate caretaking, resilient functioning might be short-lived and/or limited to single areas of functioning. A summary of factors associated with resilient functioning among abused and neglected children is provided. Such factors include individual child characteristics (e.g., self-regulatory processes), features of the child's family context (e.g., supportive parenting), and experiences in the broader environment (e.g., close friendships). Methodological considerations and recommendations for further research are provided, and implications of this literature for clinical and policy applications are presented.     

The effects of child maltreatment on early signs of antisocial behavior: genetic moderation by tryptophan hydroxylase, serotonin transporter, and monoamine oxidase A genes

Gene-environment interaction effects in predicting antisocial behavior in late childhood were investigated among maltreated and nonmaltreated low-income children (N = 627, M age = 11.27). Variants in three genes were examined: tryptophan hydroxylase 1 (TPH1), serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR), and monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) upstream variable number tandem repeat. In addition to child maltreatment status, we considered the impact of maltreatment subtypes, developmental timing of maltreatment, and chronicity. Indicators of antisocial behavior were obtained from self-, peer, and adult counselor reports. In a series of analyses of covariance, child maltreatment and its parameters demonstrated strong main effects on early antisocial behavior as assessed by all report forms. Genetic effects operated primarily in the context of gene-environment interactions, moderating the impact of child maltreatment on outcomes. Across the three genes, among nonmaltreated children no differences in antisocial behavior were found based on genetic variation. In contrast, among maltreated children specific polymorphisms of TPH1, 5-HTTLPR, and MAOA were each related to heightened self-report of antisocial behavior; the interaction of 5-HTTLPR and developmental timing of maltreatment also indicated more severe antisocial outcomes for children with early onset and recurrent maltreatment based on genotype. TPH1 and 5-HTTLPR interacted with maltreatment subtype to predict peer reports of antisocial behavior; genetic variation contributed to larger differences in antisocial behavior among abused children. The TPH1 and 5-HTTLPR polymorphisms also moderated the effects of maltreatment subtype on adult reports of antisocial behavior; again, the genetic effects were strongest for children who were abused. In addition, TPH1 moderated the effect of developmental timing of maltreatment and chronicity on adult reports of antisocial behavior. The findings elucidate how genetic variation contributes to identifying which maltreated children are most vulnerable to antisocial development.     

The development of dissociation in maltreated preschool-aged children

Dissociation reflects disruptions in the integration of memories, perception, and identity into a coherent sense of self, and may develop following childhood maltreatment. The preschool years were identified as an important period for the development of dissociation. However, prior research has not examined the development of dissociation during this time. In order to address this gap, evidence of dissociation in 45 maltreated children, assessed for sexual abuse, physical abuse, and neglect, was compared with dissociation in 33 nonmaltreated children. Rather than depend on adult observer reports of behavior, the study sought to gain an understanding of dissociation from the child's own point of view. Because self-reports have limitations with such young children, a measure of dissociation evidenced in children's narrative story-stem completions was utilized. Maltreated children, especially physically abused children and sexually abused children, demonstrated more dissociation than did nonmaltreated children. Moreover, during the preschool period maltreated and nonmaltreated children followed different trajectories such that dissociation increased for maltreated children but did not do so for nonmaltreated children. Findings suggest that although the self is normatively integrated during the preschool period, it becomes increasingly fragmented for some maltreated children. Results are discussed in terms of cascading effects of maltreatment throughout development, and the importance of developmentally sensitive interventions.     

Peer-Mediated Treatment of Socially Withdrawn Maltreated Preschool Children: Cultivating Natural Community Resources

This study evaluated the effectiveness of Resilient Peer Treatment (RPT). This is a peer-mediated, classroom-based intervention for socially withdrawn, maltreated preschool children. It examined whether the RPT impact generalized from the treatment setting to larger classroom context. Eighty-two maltreated and nonmaltreated, socially withdrawn Head Start children were randomly assigned to either RPT or attention-control (AC) conditions. Data were collected by teachers and independent observers blind to both maltreatment status and treatment condition. Treatment resulted in higher levels of collaborative peer play interactions in the treatment setting posttreatment for both the maltreated and nonmaltreated children. Results documented generalization of the treatment impact to classroom free-play sessions. These findings were supported by teacher ratings of interactive peer play and social skills.     

Peer-mediated treatment of socially withdrawn maltreated preschool children: cultivating natural community resources.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of Resilient Peer Treatment (RPT). This is a peer-mediated, classroom-based intervention for socially withdrawn, maltreated preschool children. It examined whether the RPT impact generalized from the treatment setting to larger classroom context. Eighty-two maltreated and nonmaltreated, socially withdrawn Head Start children were randomly assigned to either RPT or attention-control (AC) conditions. Data were collected by teachers and independent observers blind to both maltreatment status and treatment condition. Treatment resulted in higher levels of collaborative peer play interactions in the treatment setting posttreatment for both the maltreated and nonmaltreated children. Results documented generalization of the treatment impact to classroom free-play sessions. These findings were supported by teacher ratings of interactive peer play and social skills.     

Narrative representations of caregivers and self in maltreated pre-schoolers

This study examined narrative representations of parents and of self, as well as child behavior during the assessment, in maltreated (N = 56) and demographically comparable non-maltreated (N = 37) pre-school-aged children in a one-year longitudinal study. Maltreated children evidenced more negative representations of parents and of self at Time 2, including the juxtaposition of both a negative and a grandiose self. Over time there was a marginal interaction such that maltreated children portrayed fewer disciplining parent representations and nonmaltreated children portrayed more. Also over time, maltreated children portrayed marginally more grandiose self-representations and nonmaltreated children fewer. Furthermore, maltreated children demonstrated less responsivity to the examiner over time and nonmaltreated children demonstrated more. The deleterious effects of maltreatment on representations of self and of others, especially as development proceeds, are discussed, and the importance of providing attachment-informed intervention prior to the consolidation of these negative representations is highlighted.     

Relations between recurrent trauma exposure and recent life stress and salivary cortisol among children

The present study evaluated the independent and cumulative effects of recent life stress, previous trauma, and recent trauma exposure on salivary cortisol levels among school-aged children. Sixty-eight children (mean age=10.7 years) reported their exposure to life stressors and traumatic events in the 12 months preceding the study. Children and their caregivers reported frequency of exposure to trauma earlier in life. Exposure to life stress within the past 12 months was related to higher afternoon cortisol levels. Exposure to high levels of recent trauma in combination with frequent exposure to trauma earlier in life was related to both lower morning cortisol levels and higher afternoon cortisol levels. Results suggest that frequency, duration, and severity of exposure to stress and trauma played key roles in the prediction of basal cortisol levels in a community sample of urban youth.     

False belief understanding in maltreated children

False belief understanding was investigated in maltreated (N = 203), low socioeconomic status (SES) nonmaltreated (N = 143), and middle SES nonmaltreated (N = 172) 3- to 8-year-old children. Contrasts among the three groups provided an opportunity to examine the impact of family contextual influences on theory of mind development. Specifically, child maltreatment served as an "experiment of nature" in order to elucidate theory of mind abilities. Two false belief tasks and language assessments were administered. Among children with a verbal mental age of 49 months or greater, maltreatment was related to delays in the development of theory of mind, beyond the influence of chronological age and SES. The occurrence of maltreatment during the toddler period, onset during the toddler years, and physical abuse were features of maltreatment associated with delay in the development of theory of mind. Findings are discussed in terms of the influence of harsh caregiving on the development of theory of mind. Implications for the understanding of normal developmental processes are highlighted.