An Update on the Utility of Coronary Artery Calcium Scoring for Coronary Heart Disease and Cardiovascular Disease Risk Prediction

Estimating cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk is necessary for determining the potential net benefit of primary prevention pharmacotherapy. Risk estimation relying exclusively on traditional CVD risk factors may misclassify risk, resulting in both undertreatment and overtreatment. Coronary artery calcium (CAC) scoring personalizes risk prediction through direct visualization of calcified coronary atherosclerotic plaques and provides improved accuracy for coronary heart disease (CHD) or CVD risk estimation. In this review, we discuss the most recent studies on CAC, which unlike historical studies, focus sharply on clinical application. We describe the MESA CHD risk calculator, a recently developed CAC-based 10-year CHD risk estimator, which can help guide preventive therapy allocation by better identifying both high- and low-risk individuals. In closing, we discuss calcium density, regional distribution of CAC, and extra-coronary calcification, which represent the future of CAC and CVD risk assessment research and may lead to further improvements in risk prediction.     

Chronic Kidney Disease as a Coronary Heart Disease Risk Equivalent

Tailoring therapeutic targets to patients’ risk is a fundamental principle of many coronary heart disease (CHD) treatment guidelines. Although the National Cholesterol Education Program’s guidelines do not include chronic kidney disease (CKD) as a CHD risk equivalent, the National Kidney Foundation and American Heart Association have recommended its inclusion in the highest-risk grouping for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease. In three population-based studies, the risk of cardiovascular disease was higher among participants with established CHD when compared to their counterparts with CKD. Although there are other reasons for including CKD as a CHD risk equivalent in treatment guidelines (eg, higher case fatality rates from CHD and stroke), the inclusion of CKD as a CHD risk equivalent has treatment implications for a large number of US adults. Randomized trials assessing the benefits and drawbacks of aggressive CHD risk reduction among patients with CKD are needed.     

中老年病人血压参数与冠心病的关系

目的探讨中、老年病人中各血压参数与冠心病(CHD)的关系.方法对行冠状动脉造影的病人记录血压、性别、糖尿病等危险因素分组进行Logistic回归、逐步回归分析,比较各OR值.结果＜60岁病人组,舒张压(DBP)的OR值最大(1.20;95%CI1.14～1.28),DBP每增加5 mmHg,CHD发病率增加率增加20%.＞60岁病人组,脉压(PP)的OR值最大(1.11;95%CI1.07～1.14),PP每增加5 mmHg,冠心病发病率增加率增加11%.逐步回归分析表明,DBP和PP分别是＜60岁病人组和＞60岁病人组CHD发病的重要影响因子.结论中青年病人中,DBP高者CHD发病率较高,老年病人中,PP高者CHD发病率较高.     

中老年病人血压参数与冠心病的关系

目的　探讨中、老年病人中各血压参数与冠心病 (CHD)的关系。方法　对行冠状动脉造影的病人记录血压、性别、糖尿病等危险因素分组进行Logistic回归、逐步回归分析 ,比较各OR值。结果　 <60岁病人组 ,舒张压 (DBP)的OR值最大 ( 1 2 0 ;95 %CI:1 14～ 1 2 8) ,DBP每增加 5mmHg ,CHD发病率增加率增加 2 0 %。 >60岁病人组 ,脉压 (PP)的OR值最大 ( 1 11;95 %CI :1 0 7～ 1 14 ) ,PP每增加 5mmHg ,冠心病发病率增加率增加 11%。逐步回归分析表明 ,DBP和PP分别是 <60岁病人组和 >60岁病人组CHD发病的重要影响因子。结论　中青年病人中 ,DBP高者CHD发病率较高 ,老年病人中 ,PP高者CHD发病率较高     

Diabetes and Coronary Heart Disease as Risk Factors for Mortality in Older Adults

Background

Type 2 diabetes has been described as a coronary heart disease (CHD) “risk equivalent.” We tested whether cardiovascular and all-cause mortality rates were similar between participants with prevalent CHD vs diabetes in an older adult population in whom both glucose disorders and preexisting atherosclerosis are common.

Methods

The Cardiovascular Health Study is a longitudinal study of men and women (n = 5784) aged ≥65 years at baseline who were followed from baseline (1989/1992-1993) through 2005 for mortality. Diabetes was defined by fasting plasma glucose ≥7.0 mmol/L or use of diabetes control medications. Prevalent CHD was determined by confirmed history of myocardial infarction, angina, or coronary revascularization.

Results

Following multivariable adjustment for other cardiovascular disease risk factors and subclinical atherosclerosis, CHD mortality risk was similar between participants with CHD alone vs diabetes alone (hazard ratio [HR] 1.04, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.83-1.30). The proportion of mortality attributable to prevalent diabetes (population-attributable risk percent = 8.4%) and prevalent CHD (6.7%) was similar in women, but the proportion of mortality attributable to CHD (16.5%) as compared with diabetes (6.4%) was markedly higher in men. Patterns were similar for cardiovascular disease mortality. By contrast, the adjusted relative hazard of total mortality was lower among participants with CHD alone (HR 0.85, 95% CI, 0.75-0.96) as compared with those who had diabetes alone.

Conclusions

Among older adults, diabetes alone confers a risk for cardiovascular mortality similar to that from established clinical CHD. The public health burden of both diabetes and CHD is substantial, particularly among women.     

Diabetes and Prior Coronary Heart Disease are Not Necessarily Risk Equivalent for Future Coronary Heart Disease Events

Background

For more than a decade, the presence of diabetes has been considered a coronary heart disease (CHD) “risk equivalent”.

Objective

The objective of this study was to revisit the concept of risk equivalence by comparing the risk of subsequent CHD events among individuals with or without history of diabetes or CHD in a large contemporary real-world cohort over a period of 10 years (2002 to 2011).

Design

Population-based prospective cohort analysis.

Participants

We studied a cohort of 1,586,061 adult members (ages 30–90 years) of Kaiser Permanente Northern California, an integrated health care delivery system.

Main Measurements

We calculated hazard ratios (HRs) from Cox proportional hazard models for CHD among four fixed cohorts, defined by prevalent (baseline) risk group: no history of diabetes or CHD (None), prior CHD alone (CHD), diabetes alone (DM), and diabetes and prior CHD (DM + CHD).

Key Results

We observed 80,012 new CHD events over the follow-up period (~10,980,800 person-years). After multivariable adjustment, the HRs (reference: None) for new CHD events were as follows: CHD alone, 2.8 (95 % CI, 2.7–2.85); DM alone 1.7 (95 % CI, 1.66–1.74); DM + CHD, 3.9 (95 % CI, 3.8–4.0). Individuals with diabetes alone had significantly lower risk of CHD across all age and sex strata compared to those with CHD alone (12.2 versus 22.5 per 1000 person-years). The risk of future CHD for patients with a history of either DM or CHD was similar only among those with diabetes of long duration (≥10 years).

Conclusions

Not all individuals with diabetes should be unconditionally assumed to be a risk equivalent of those with prior CHD.KEY WORDS: coronary heart disease, diabetes, epidemiology     

New and Emerging Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is one of the leading causes of death in the United States. Traditional risk factors such as family history, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes mellitus and smoking cannot account for the entire risk for incident coronary events. Several other potential risk factors have been identified in an effort to improve risk assessment for CHD. This article reviews the current evidence on new and emerging risk factors for CHD and their current utility in screening, specifically focusing on coronary artery calcium score, C-reactive protein, lipoprotein (a), carotid intima-media thickness, homocysteine, lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2, as well as high-density lipoprotein functionality.     

Chocolate and Coronary Heart Disease: A Systematic Review

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the leading cause of death in the United States. The high content of polyphenols and flavonoids present in cocoa has been reported to play an important protective role in the development of CHD. Although studies have demonstrated beneficial effects of chocolate on endothelial function, blood pressure, serum lipids, insulin resistance, and platelet function, it is unclear whether chocolate consumption influences the risk of CHD. This article reviews current evidence on the effects of cocoa/chocolate on clinical and subclinical CHD, CHD risk factors, and potential biologic mechanisms. It also discusses major limitations of currently available data and future directions in the field.     

单核细胞源性微囊泡与冠心病及其危险因素的关系

单核细胞源性微囊泡是单核细胞应激后脱落的微小囊泡状颗粒,能够引起内皮细胞功能异常,具有促炎活性和促凝血活性,在冠心病的病理过程中发挥着重要作用。同时,冠心病的一些危险因素能够促进单核细胞源性微囊泡的产生。因此,单核细胞源性微囊泡有潜力成为新的冠心病诊断依据和治疗靶点。文章就单核细胞源性微囊泡与冠心病及其危险因素关系的最新研究进展进行综述。     

Ethnic Minorities and Coronary Heart Disease: an Update and Future Directions

Heart disease remains the leading cause of death in the USA. Overall, heart disease accounts for about 1 in 4 deaths with coronary heart disease (CHD) being responsible for over 370,000 deaths per year. It has frequently and repeatedly been shown that some minority groups in the USA have higher rates of traditional CHD risk factors, different rates of treatment with revascularization procedures, and excess morbidity and mortality from CHD when compared to the non-Hispanic white population. Numerous investigations have been made into the causes of these disparities. This review aims to highlight the recent literature which examines CHD in ethnic minorities and future directions in research and care.     

Leukocyte Count and Risks of Stroke and Coronary Heart Disease: The Circulatory Risk in Communities Study (CIRCS)

Aim: This study aimed to investigate the associations of leukocyte count with the risks of stroke and coronary heart disease among the general Japanese population. Methods: A total of 5,242 residents aged 40–69 years living in two Japanese communities underwent leukocyte count measurements between 1991 and 2000, and the data were updated using 5- or 10-year follow-ups or both. Participants who had histories of stroke, coronary heart disease, or high values of leukocyte count (＞130×10 ² cells/mm ³ ) were excluded. Hazard ratios with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated according to quartiles of cumulative average leukocyte count. Results: During follow-up of 21 years, 327 stroke and 130 coronary heart disease cases were determined. After adjustments for age, sex, community, and updated cardiovascular risk factors, the multivariable hazard ratio (95% CI) for the highest versus lowest quartile of leukocyte count was 1.50 (1.08–2.08) for ischemic stroke, 1.59 (1.00–2.51) for lacunar infarction, 1.42 (0.90–2.26) for non-lacunar infarction, 2.17 (1.33–3.55) for coronary heart disease, and 1.40 (1.11–1.76) for total cardiovascular disease. In smoking status-stratified analyses, the corresponding multivariable hazard ratio (95% CI) was 2.45 (1.11–5.38) for ischemic stroke, 2.73 (1.37–5.44) for coronary heart disease in current smokers, 2.42 (1.07–5.46), 1.55 (0.58–4.15) in former smokers, and 1.17 (0.75–1.82), 1.78 (0.83–3.82) in never smokers. Conclusion: Leukocyte count was positively associated with the risks of ischemic stroke and coronary heart disease among the general Japanese population, especially in current smokers.     

新的冠心病危险因素

传统冠心病危险因素如高血压、糖尿病、高胆固醇血症不能完全解释所有冠心病的病因。目前,对新的危险因素如炎症、促凝物质、氧化低密度脂蛋白、小而密的低密度脂蛋白、脂蛋白(a)、感染、高同型半胱氨酸血症、高尿酸血症等在冠心病发生发展中的深入研究,加深了对冠心病发病机制的认识,提示临床上治疗冠心病时,除了控制传统的冠心病危险因素外,应加强对新的冠心病危险因素的干预。     

Periodontal Disease and Coronary Heart Disease Incidence: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND  Periodontal disease is common among adults in the US and is a potential source of chronic inflammation. Recent data have suggested an important role for chronic inflammation in the development of coronary heart disease (CHD). OBJECTIVE  To aid the United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) in evaluating whether periodontal disease is an independent novel risk factor for incident CHD. METHODS  Studies were identified by searching Medline (1966 through March 2008) and reviewing prior systematic reviews, reference lists, and consulting experts. Prospective cohort studies that assessed periodontal disease, Framingham risk factors, and coronary heart disease incidence in the general adult population without known CHD were reviewed and quality rated using criteria developed by the USPSTF. Meta-analysis of good and fair quality studies was conducted to determine summary estimates of the risk of CHD events associated with various categories of periodontal disease. RESULTS  We identified seven articles of good or fair quality from seven cohorts. Several studies found periodontal disease to be independently associated with increased risk of CHD. Summary relative risk estimates for different categories of periodontal disease (including periodontitis, tooth loss, gingivitis, and bone loss) ranged from 1.24 (95% CI 1.01–1.51) to 1.34 (95% CI 1.10–1.63). Risk estimates were similar in subgroup analyses by gender, outcome, study quality, and method of periodontal disease assessment. CONCLUSION  Periodontal disease is a risk factor or marker for CHD that is independent of traditional CHD risk factors, including socioeconomic status. Further research in this important area of public health is warranted.     

The Potential of SERMs for Reducing the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease

Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) represent a growing class of compounds that act as either estrogen receptor agonists or antagonists in a tissue-selective manner. Preclinical and clinical studies have shown that estrogen has favorable effects on serum lipids and might affect processes at the blood vessel wall to inhibit atherosclerosis. SERMs with the appropriate selectivity profile offer the opportunity to dissociate these favorable cardiovascular effects of estrogen from its unfavorable stimulatory effects on the breast and uterus. This article reviews the data from both animal and human studies that document the cardiovascular effects of SERMs and discusses the clinical implications of these results.     

外周血干细胞移植治疗冠心病研究进展

干细胞移植治疗冠心病是目前医学研究的热点。本文简要介绍了外周血干细胞治疗冠心病的研究进展,包括外周血干细胞与冠心病发病的关系、外周血干细胞治疗冠心病的方法和效果以及存在的问题和展望。