Medicinal plants used by the Bapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the Limpopo Province,South Africa

Ethnopharmacological relevance

This paper provides ethnobotanical information on medicinal plants used to treat diarrhoea in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Documentation of this nature usually provides the basis for selecting medicinal plants for future phytochemical and pharmaceutical studies aimed at developing new, effective and affordable plant-derived diarrhoea remedies.

Aim of the study

To record and document medicinal plants used by the Bapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the Limpopo Province, South Africa.

Materials and methods

In order to record and document medicinal plants used by the Bapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea, 51 healers from 17 municipalities covering Capricorn, Sekhukhune and Waterberg districts in the Limpopo Province, South Africa were interviewed between January and July 2011. Data collected included the names of plants, plant part(s) used, methods of herbal preparation, administration, dosage and duration of treatments. Voucher specimens of the plants used by the Bapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea were collected, identified and deposited as future reference material at the Larry-Leach Herbarium (UNIN), University of Limpopo.

Results

A total of 20 plant species representing 16 families and 20 genera were found to be commonly used by the Bapedi traditional healers to treat and manage diarrhoea in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. The largest proportion of the medicinal plants belonged to the families Anacardiaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Malvaceae (10% each). The most frequently used species were Punica granatum (39.2%), Grewia bicolor (33.3%), Dombeya rotundifolia (21.6%), Commiphora marlothii (19.6%) and Acacia senegal (13.7%). The roots were the most commonly used plant part (50%), followed by leaves (20%), bark (15%), fruits (10%), pericarp, seed, tuber and whole plants (5% each). Mono therapies based on preparations made from a single plant species were the most dominant (90%). All medicinal preparations were taken orally for 1 week or until diarrhoea subsided. The therapeutic claims of the medicinal plants documented in this study are well supported by literature, with 70% of the species having anti-diarrhoeal properties or are used as diarrhoea remedies both in South Africa and also in other countries.

Conclusion

This study reveals that local communities in the Limpopo Province, South Africa still depend on traditional medicines for basic healthcare; and the use of traditional medicines is still an integral part of their socio-cultural life.     

Medicinal plants used for the treatment of diarrhoea in northern Maputaland,KwaZulu-Natal Province,South Africa

Aim of the study

To document the ethnobotanical knowledge on antidiarrhoeal plant use by lay people in a rural community in northern Maputaland.

Materials and methods

Interviews were conducted amongst homestead inhabitants, using structured questionnaires. The focus was on the medicinal plants which are growing in and around the immediate vicinity of the homesteads.

Results

Twenty-three plant species are used in the study area to treat diarrhoea. Four plants (Acacia burkei, Brachylaena transvaalensis, Cissampelos hirta and Sarcostemma viminale) are recorded for the first time globally as an antidiarrhoel. The three antidiarrhoeal plants most frequently used in the study area are Psidium guajava, Catharanthus roseus and Melia azedarach (all three are exotic to South Africa), followed by Sclerocarya birrea and Strychnos madagascariensis which are indigenous. Seven of the 23 plant species are used in five different plant combinations for increased antidiarrhoeal efficacy.

Conclusion

The wide variety of plants that are used to treat diarrhoea in this area supports the traditional value that medicinal plants have in the primary health care system of the rural people in northern Maputaland, KwaZulu-Natal.     

Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by Bapedi healers to treat diabetes mellitus in the Limpopo Province, South Africa

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Bapedi phytomedicine employ a range of plant species to treat diabetes mellitus (DM). Existing literature partially support the use of certain species for this purpose.

Aim of the study

To report on Bapedi medicinal plants employed to treat DM.

Materials and methods

A semi-structured questionnaire was employed to conduct a survey on medicinal plants used by Bapedi traditional healers in their DM management protocol. Fifty-two traditional healers from 16 municipalities, covering three districts, were interviewed during the first half of 2011.

Results

A total of 24 plant species belonging to 20 families, mostly from the Asteraceae (13%), Cucurbitaceae and Sapotaceae (8%), were used to treat diabetes mellitus. Plant parts mostly preferred were roots and leaves. A decoction of these is most commonly used to make extracts, which are then taken orally for a period of one week. Mimusops zeyheri (29%), Helichrysum caespititium (25%), Plumeria obtusa (21%), Aloe marlothii subsp. marlothii, Hypoxis iridifolia and Moringa oleifera (17% each), were repeatedly mentioned by the traditional healers as most used for the management of diabetes mellitus in the study area. Plumeria obtusa and Momordica balsamina are exclusively used to treat diabetes mellitus, and only in the Sekhukhune District.

Conclusion

It is concluded that Bapedi traditional healers do have a basic understanding of the causes and remedial action required in the treatment of diabetes mellitus.     

Antibacterial activity of South African plants used for medicinal purposes

Crude extracts from 21 South African medicinal plants, traditionally used for ailments of an infectious or septic nature, were screened for in vitro antibacterial activity using the agar diffusion and dilution methods. Almost all the activity exhibited was against Gram-positive bacteria, with 12 of the 21 plant species tested showing some activity against Bacillus subtilis. Only the Warburgia salutaris methanol extract inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli. None of the extracts had any activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae. The highest activity was found in the methanol extracts from Bidens pilosa, Psidium guajava, Artemisia afra and Warburgia salutaris. The majority of the antibacterial activity was present in the methanolic, rather than the aqueous extracts.     

Antibacterial and antifungal activity of traditional medicinal plants used against venereal diseases in South Africa

Aqueous, ethanolic and ethyl acetate extracts of 13 plants used in South Africa for the treatment of venereal diseases were screened for antibacterial and antifungal activity. Among the plants tested, Gunnera perpensa, Harpephyllum caffrum, Hypoxis latifolia and Ledebouria ovatifolia showed the best antibacterial activity. The aqueous extracts of Gunnera perpensa and Harpephyllum caffrum were most active against all the tested bacteria. In antifungal screening, good activity was shown by the ethanolic extracts of Bersama lucens and Harpephyllum caffrum. Only in the case of Harpephyllum caffrum did aqueous extracts have activity against Candida albicans.     

Antibacterial activities of extracts from Ugandan medicinal plants used for oral care

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Medicinal plants are widely used for treatment of oral/dental diseases in Uganda.

Aim of the study

To investigate antibacterial activities of 16 commonly used medicinal plants on microorganisms associated with periodontal diseases (PD) and dental caries (DC).

Materials and methods

Pulp juice and solvent extracts (hexane, methanol and water) from the plants were tested against Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Tannerella forsythia associated with PD and Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus sobrinus, Lactobacillus acidophilus associated with DC. Tests were done using agar well-diffusion (pulp juice) and agar-dilution (Solvent extracts) assays.

Results

Pulp juice from Zanthoxylum chalybeum and Euclea latidens showed activity against all the bacteria, Zanthoxylum chalybeum being most active. Hexane extract from aerial part of Helichrysum odoratissimum was most active (MIC: 0.125–0.5 mg/ml). Methanol extract from leaves of Lantana trifolia showed activity against all bacteria (MIC: 0.25–1 mg/ml).

Conclusion

Several of the tested plants showed antibacterial activities against bacteria associated with PD and DC, meriting further investigations.     

Evaluation of five medicinal plants used in diarrhoea treatment in Nigeria

Five medicinal plants [Acacia nilotica, Acanthospermun hispidum, Gmelina arborea, Parkia biglobosa and Vitex doniana] used in diarrhoeal treatment in Kaduna State, Nigeria, were investigated. This study was carried out on perfused isolated rabbit jejunum and castor oil-induced diarrhoea in mice. The aqueous methanol extracts (0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 mg/ml) were generally found to cause a dose-dependent response in the isolated rabbit jejunum, though this was not uniform in all the plants. Gmelina arborea and Vitex doniana showed concentration dependent relaxation at low doses (0.5, 1.0 mg/ml), but showed no significant relaxation at higher doses (2.0, 3.0 mg/ml). Other extracts showed biphasic effects. For example, Acacia nilotica at 3.0 mg/ml caused initial relaxation quickly followed by contraction. In the castor oil-induced diarrhoeal, 100% protections were shown by extracts of Acacia nilotica and Parkia biglobosa (100, 200 mg/kg) while Vitex doniana showed a dose-dependent effect. The least protection was shown by Acanthospermun hispidum, at the same dose, when compared with the other four plants. The results obtained revealed that the aqueous methanol extracts of all the five medicinal plants investigated have pharmacological activity against diarrhoea. This may explain their use in traditional medicine for the treatment of diarrhoea.     

Antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities of some plants used for medicinal purposes in Kenya

Aqueous, hexane and methanol extracts of 12 plant species, traditionally used in Kenya for treatment of ailments of infectious and/or inflammatory nature were screened for in vitro antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities. Antibacterial activity was tested using the agar diffusion method while anti-inflammatory activity was tested using the cyclooxygenase (COX-1) assay. All the antibacterial activity was against Gram-positive bacteria with nine plant species showing some activity against Staphylococcus aureus. The highest activity was found in the methanol extracts of Maytenus senegalensis, Plectranthus barbatus, Zanthoxylum chalybeum, Zanthoxylum usambarense and hexane extracts of Spiranthes mauritianum. All the plant species showed some anti-inflammatory activities. In most cases, methanol extracts caused higher inhibition than aqueous and hexane extracts.     

Study of Rwandese medicinal plants used in the treatment of diarrhoea I

A series of 20 medicinal plants used in the Rwandese traditional medicine to treat diarrhoeal diseases has been screened for antibacterial activity against several Salmonella and Shigella and for antidiarrhoeal activity on mice. Fifty percent of the plants tested showed antibacterial activity against one or more microorganisms and 65% showed antidiarrhoeal activity.     

Antibacterial activity of some indigenous plants used for the treatment of wounds in the Eastern Cape, South Africa.

The use of medicinal plants in the world, and especially in South Africa, contributes significantly to primary health care. This paper presents the findings of an initial survey of plants used for the treatment of wounds in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Ethnomedical information gathered from surveys at clinics, hospitals as well as interviews with traditional healers and rural dwellers has revealed that Grewia occidentalis, Polystichum pungens, Cheilanthes viridis and Malva parvifolia are the most commonly used plants for the treatment of wounds in the province. The methanol extracts of G. occidentalis, P. pungens and C. viridis showed significant inhibition against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, while the acetone extract of P. pungens inhibited the gram-positive bacteria only. Extracts from M. parvifolia did not show any antibacterial activity at 5.0 mg/ml. Generally, the antibacterial property of the plants appears to have justified their use for the treatment of wounds, which are contaminated through bacterial infection, in the province.     

Anti-inflammatory,anticholinesterase, antioxidant and phytochemical properties of medicinal plants used for pain-related ailments in South Africa

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Extracts of seven South African medicinal plants used traditionally for the treatment of pain-related ailments were evaluated.

Aims of the study

The study was aimed at evaluating medicinal and therapeutic potentials of the investigated traditional medicinal plants. Plant extracts were evaluated for anti-inflammatory activity and other pharmacological properties such as anticholinesterase and antioxidant activities. Phytochemical analysis of total phenolic contents, condensed tannins, gallotannins and flavonoids in the aqueous methanol extracts of the medicinal plants were also carried out.

Materials and methods

The evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity of 50% methanol (50% MeOH), petroleum ether (PE), dichloromethane (DCM) and ethanol (EtOH) plant extracts was done against cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 (COX-1 and COX-2) enzymes. 50% MeOH, PE, DCM and EtOH extracts were tested for acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition, while 50% MeOH extracts were tested for 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity and ferric-reducing power in the antioxidant assays. Total phenolic compounds, condensed tannins, gallotannins and flavonoids were quantitatively determined using spectrophotometric methods.

Results

At the screening assay concentration (0.25 μg/μl), 13 extracts showed good COX-1 inhibitory activity (>50%), while good activity was observed in 15 extracts against COX-2 enzyme. All the extracts of Crinum moorei (bulbs) showed good inhibition against both COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes. Though not significantly different (P = 0.05), the highest COX-1 percentage inhibition (100%) was shown by Aloe ferox leaf PE and Colocasia antiquorum tuber DCM extracts, while Colocasia antiquorum tuber PE extract exhibited the highest (92.7%) percentage inhibition against COX-2. Crinum moorei bulb DCM extract showed the lowest EC₅₀ value (2.9 μg/ml) in the AChE assay. In addition, good to moderate bioactivities were observed in some extracts of Aloe ferox (leaves), Crinum moorei (bulbs) and Pycnostachys reticulata (leaves) in all the assays. The presence and/or amounts of phenolic compounds varied with plant species.

Conclusion

The results obtained in this study validate the use of the investigated medicinal plants in South African traditional medicine for pain-related ailments.     

Antiviral activities of some Ethiopian medicinal plants used for the treatment of dermatological disorders

Acokanthera schimperi (Apocynaceae), Euclea schimperi (Ebenaceae), Inula confertiflora (Asteraceae), Melilotus elegans (Leguminosae), and Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae), are some of the medicinal plants used in Ethiopia for treatment of various skin disorders. In this study, the antiviral activities of the 80% methanolic extracts of these plants have been examined against coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3), influenza A virus and herpes simplex virus type1 Kupka (HSV-1) using cytopathic effect (CPE) inhibitory assays in HeLa, MDCK, and GMK cells, respectively. In parallel, the cytotoxicity was quantified using a crystal violet uptake assay. The antiviral activity of the most active compound was confirmed with plaque reduction assays. The results revealed that the extracts of Acokanthera schimperi and Euclea schimperi showed antiviral activity against all three tested viruses albeit with unequal efficacy. Whereas the Acokanthera schimperi extract exhibited the strongest activity against CVB3, the extract of Euclea schimperi inhibited influenzavirus A replication most effectively. A weak anti-influenzavirus A activity was also exhibited by the other plant extracts tested. In addition, CVB3 was inhibited by the extracts of Plumbago zeylanica and HSV-1 by Inula confertiflora. Thus, the extracts of these plants, particularly those of Acokanthera schimperi, Euclea schimperi and Inula confertiflora which showed activity against CVB3 and HSV-1 support their traditional use in the treatment of skin diseases of viral origin.     

Antibacterial, anthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in South African medicinal plants

Hexane, ethanol and water extracts of plants used by South African traditional healers for treating stomach ailments were screened for antibacterial, anthelmintic and anti-amoebic activities. To evaluate antibacterial activity, the disc-diffusion assay was used against several Gram-positive and Gram-negative species. Minimal inhibitory concentration values were determined with a microdilution assay. Ethanolic extracts showed the greatest activity, and Gram-positive bacteria were the most susceptible microorganisms. The free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans was used in two different assays to evaluate anthelmintic activity. A microdilution technique was employed to investigate anti-amoebic activity against the enteropathogenic Entamoeba histolytica. These assays were suitable for the screening of a large number of extracts at one time. Several plants exhibited significant activity against these test organisms.     

Anti-inflammatory and phytochemical properties of twelve medicinal plants used for treating gastro-intestinal ailments in South Africa

Ethnopharmacological relevance

The investigated medicinal plants are commonly used for the treatment of pains and cramps related to gastro-intestinal tract infections in South African traditional medicine.

Aims of the study

This study aimed to evaluate the ability of the plant extracts to inhibit cyclooxygenase enzymes. Phytochemical analysis was also carried out in the quest to determine some plant metabolites that may be responsible for the observed anti-inflammatory activity.

Materials and methods

The cyclooxygenase assay was used to test for the anti-inflammatory activity of the plant extracts using cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 (COX-1 and COX-2) enzymes. Total phenolic compounds including condensed tannins, gallotannins and flavonoids were quantitatively determined using spectrophotometric methods. Qualitative tests for alkaloids and saponins were also carried out.

Results

Most of the plant extracts evaluated showed dose dependent activity against COX-1 and/or COX-2 enzymes. Agapanthus campanulatus root dichloromethane extract showed the highest COX-2 inhibitory activity (83.7%) at 62.5 μg/ml. The presence and/or amounts of phenolics, condensed tannins, gallotannins, flavonoids, alkaloids and saponins varied with plant parts and species.

Conclusion

The results support the use of the investigated plant in treating pain and cramp related to gastro-intestinal tract infections. To some extent, the observed anti-inflammatory activity could be attributed to the various plant secondary metabolites detected in the plant materials.     

Antiplasmodial and cytotoxic activities of Rwandan medicinal plants used in the treatment of malaria

Aim of the study

In our study, methanol, dichloromethane and aqueous extracts of 13 Rwandan medicinal plants used in the treatment of malaria were tested for in vitro antiplasmodial activity.

Materials and methods

The growth inhibition of chloroquine-sensitive Plasmodium falciparum strain (3D7) was evaluated using the measurement of lactate dehydrogenase activity. The active extracts were also tested against the chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum strain (W2) and for cytotoxicity assay using human normal foetal lung fibroblasts (WI-38).

Results

The majority of the plants tested showed an antiplasmodial activity and the best results were observed with dichloromethane leaf and flower extracts of Tithonia diversifolia, leaf extract of Microglossa pyrifolia and root extract of Rumex abyssinicus, methanol leaf extract of Fuerstia africana, root bark extracts of Zanthoxylum chalybeum and methanol bark extract of Terminalia mollis. Those extracts were active (IC₅₀ < 15 μg/ml) on both chloroquine-sensitive and resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum. Zanthoxylum chalybeum, Solanecio mannii and Terminalia mollis presented the best selectivity index.

Conclusions

The traditional use of most of the plant evaluated was confirmed by the antiplasmodial test. This study revealed for the first time the antiplasmodial activity of two plants: Terminalia mollis and Rumex abyssinicus.     

Antimalarial activities of medicinal plants traditionally used in the villages of Dharmapuri regions of South India

Ethnopharmacological relevance

An ethnopharmacological investigation of medicinal plants traditionally used to treat diseases associated with fevers in Dharmapuri region of South India was undertaken. Twenty four plants were identified and evaluated for their in vitro activity against Plasmodium falciparum and assessed for cytotoxicity against HeLa cell line.

Aim of the study

This antimalarial in vitro study was planned to correlate and validate the traditional usage of medicinal plants against malaria.

Materials and methods

An ethnobotanical survey was made in Dharmapuri region, Tamil Nadu, India to identify plants used in traditional medicine against fevers. Selected plants were extracted with ethyl acetate and methanol and evaluated for antimalarial activity against erythrocytic stages of chloroquine (CQ)-sensitive 3D7 and CQ-resistant INDO strains of Plasmodium falciparum in culture using the fluorescence-based SYBR Green I assay. Cytotoxicity was determined against HeLa cells using MTT assay.

Results

Promising antiplasmodial activity was found in Aegle marmelos [leaf methanol extract (ME) (IC₅₀ = 7 μg/mL] and good activities were found in Lantana camara [leaf ethyl acetate extract (EAE) IC₅₀ = 19 μg/mL], Leucas aspera (flower EAE IC₅₀ = 12.5 μg/mL), Momordica charantia (leaf EAE IC₅₀ = 17.5 μg/mL), Phyllanthus amarus (leaf ME IC₅₀ = 15 μg/mL) and Piper nigrum (seed EAE IC₅₀ = 12.5 μg/mL). The leaf ME of Aegle marmelos which showed the highest activity against Plasmodium falciparum elicited low cytotoxicity (therapeutic index > 13).

Conclusion

These results provide validation for the traditional usage of some medicinal plants against malaria in Dharmapuri region, Tamil Nadu, India.     

Antiparasitic activities of medicinal plants used in Ivory Coast

During an ethnopharmacological survey of antiparasitic medicinal plants used in Ivory Coast, 17 plants were identified and collected. Polar, non-polar and alkaloidic extracts of various parts of these species were evaluated in vitro in an antiparasitic drug screening. Antimalarial, leishmanicidal, trypanocidal, antihelminthiasis and antiscabies activities were determined. Among the selected plants, Anogeissus leiocarpus and Terminalia glaucescens were strongly active against Plasmodium falciparum. Lawsonia inermis, selectively prescribed against trypanosomiasis shows interesting trypanocidal activities as did other 15 plants. Anthelmintic activities were found for 10 active species and 2 species (Uvaria afzelli and Monodora myristica) were actives against mites.     

An ethnobotanical study of plants used for the treatment of wounds in the Eastern Cape, South Africa

The people of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, still depend, to a large extent, on traditional herbal medicine for the treatment of various diseases and ailments. This includes the use of plants for the treatment of wounds. Information collected from the traditional healers, the Sangomas, has revealed 38 plant species that are used for the treatment of wounds in the Province. The plants belong to 26 families of which Asteraceae, Asphodelaceae and Solanaceae are the most represented. The use of plant leaves as a poultice and infusions are the commonest categories of herbal preparations. In all cases, the treatment of wounds involved the external application of the herbal medicine.     

Antimicrobial activity of some plants used for the treatment of livestock disease in the Eastern Cape,South Africa

Approximately 75% of rural livestock owners in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa use plants or plant based remedies to treat their livestock. Prominent among these plants are Combretum caffrum, Salix capensis and Schotia latifolia. Water, methanolic and acetonic extracts as well as decoctions of the three plants were screened against ten bacteria and five fungi. The results of the antibacterial assay indicated significant activity against all the Gram-positive bacteria tested with the minimum inhibitory concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 5.0 mg/ml. A few of the extracts showed minimal activity, but the majority of extracts were not active on the Gram-negative bacteria. Generally, all the extracts showed some antifungal activity against the five test fungi. Methanolic extracts exhibited higher fungal growth inhibition, whereas the water extracts showed the least inhibition. It was noteworthy that some water extracts promoted fungal growth.     

Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used for the treatment of malaria in plateau of Allada,Benin (West Africa)

Background

Malaria remains one of the most important illnesses in sub-Saharan Africa. In Benin, it constitutes a major public health preoccupation particularly for children and pregnant women. Until now, population still mostly relies on herbal medicine for malaria healing. Hence this study was carried out to document the medicinal plants used in the plateau of Allada in Benin and to assess local knowledge on traditional medicine in the management of malaria and related symptoms.

Materials and methods

Data were collected from 53 informants composed of 23 traditional healers and 30 medicinal plants sellers using a structured questionnaire.

Results

A total of 82 plants species belonging to 78 genera in 43 plant families were recorded as antimalarial in the study area. The families of Rubiaceae and Caesalpiniaceae were the most represented with seven species each. High informant consensus factor (ICF) was recorded in the treatment of malaria (ICF=0.90). High fidelity level (FL=100%) was also recorded for 45.67% of the species used as antimalarial. Dichapetalum madagascariense was the species of high relative frequency of citation (RFC=0.81). The dominant plant parts used in the preparation of remedies were leaves (68%). The decoction (79%) was the main mode of preparation, while oral route (92%) was the principal route of remedies administration.

Conclusion

This study provides plant species used in the plateau of Allada for malaria and related symptoms treatment. We hope that this study could be important for the conservation of traditional knowledge on the antimalarial plants and the improvement of malaria management. However, several plant species used as antimalarial by the traditional medicine practitioners in the study area need to be screened in order to identify the species having antiplasmodial activity.