Activation of ERK1/2 protects melanoma cells from TRAIL-induced apoptosis by inhibiting Smac/DIABLO release from mitochondria

We have previously shown that Smac/DIABLO release from mitochondria appears to be the principal pathway by which TRAIL induces apoptosis of human melanoma. We report that TRAIL-induced release of Smac/DIABLO appears to be downregulated by concomitant signaling through the MEK Erk1/2 kinase pathway and that this inhibits TRAIL-induced apoptosis. Inhibition of Erk1/2 signaling by either the MEK inhibitor U0126 or a dominant-negative mutant of MKK1 markedly sensitized melanoma cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis. The site in the apoptotic pathway acted on by U0126 appeared to be downstream of caspase-8 and Bid but upstream of caspase-3 in that the levels of proteolytic cleavage of caspase-8 and Bid by TRAIL were similar in cells with or without exposure to U0126. Caspase-3 activation and cleavage of its substrates, PARP, ICAD and XIAP, were however increased by cotreatment with U0126. This was associated with a rapid reduction in mitochondrial transmembrane potential (MMP) and increased release of Smac/DIABLO into the cytosol. Exploration of events leading to the changes in MMP revealed an increased translocation of Bax from the cytosol to mitochondria in the presence of U0126. There was also a delayed decrease in the levels of expression of Mcl-1. Bcl-2 and Bcl-X(L). Over expression of Bcl-2 blocked TRAIL-induced apoptosis in the presence of U0126. Cytochrome c appeared not to play a major role in sensitization of melanoma to TRAIL in that caspase-9 activation was not detected in most of the cell lines. These results suggest that Erk1/2 signaling may protect melanoma cells against TRAIL-induced apoptosis by inhibiting the relocation of Bax from the cytosol to mitochondria and that this may reduce TRAIL-mediated release of Smac/DIABLO and induction of apoptosis.     

eNOS protects prostate cancer cells from TRAIL-induced apoptosis

Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is a potent anti-cancer agent because it induces apoptosis of most tumor cells with little or no effect on normal cells. In this study, we investigated the effect of TRAIL on human prostate normal and cancer cell lines, and found that the prostate cancer cell lines PC-3, ALVA-31, DU 145 and TSU-Pr1 were sensitive to TRAIL-induced apoptosis, while normal PrEC cells and cancer cell line LNCaP were resistant. No correlation was found between the sensitivity of cells to TRAIL and the expression of TRAIL receptors DR4 and DR5, and pro-apoptotic proteins Bax and Bak. However, LNCaP cells displayed a high Akt activity. Furthermore, we found that endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), one of the Akt substrates, was highly expressed in LNCaP but not in other cells. Inhibition of eNOS activity by NOS inhibitor sensitized LNCaP cells to TRAIL. Moreover, PC-3 cell clones stably expressing eNOS were resistant to TRAIL-induced apoptosis. Taken together, these results indicate that eNOS can regulate the sensitivity of prostate cancer cells to TRAIL, and down-regulation of eNOS activity may sensitize prostate cancer cells to TRAIL-based therapy.     

Uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and Smac/DIABLO release are not sufficient to account for induction of apoptosis by sulindac sulfide in human colorectal cancer cells

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have shown chemopreventive properties in colorectal cancer, involving both cyclooxygenase (COX)-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Apart from their selectivity for COX isoenzymes, NSAIDs differ in their acidic character which supports ability to uncouple oxidative phosphorylation. To assess the possible contribution of uncoupling to their antineoplastic properties, we compared the effect of sulindac sulfide (SS), an acidic NSAID and NS-398, a non-acidic tricyclic, on mitochondrial function and apoptosis in colorectal cancer cell lines (HT29, Caco-2, HCT15 and HCT116). Although cell lines displayed a different COX status, SS and NS-398 caused growth arrest in a dose-related manner. High dose (10(-4)M) of SS but not of NS-398, increased the percentage of subG1 cell population while reducing mitochondrial transmembrane potential (DeltaPsim). Cyclosporin A (CsA, 1 microM) prevented collapse of DeltaPsim induced by 10(-4)M SS but not by 7.5 microM FCCP used as a protonophoric control. SS and FCCP increased the cytosolic release of Smac/DIABLO which was differently affected by CsA pretreatment depending on the uncoupler. Finally, 7.5 microM FCCP failed to induce apoptosis whereas CsA prevented apoptosis induced by SS from 16% in HCT15 to 41% in HCT116. The present study shows that despite the ability of sulindac sulfide to behave as a protonophoric uncoupler, CsA-sensitive opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pore contributes little to its pro-apoptotic effect in colorectal cancer cells.     

Radiation-induced apoptosis of tumor cells is facilitated by inhibition of the interaction between Survivin and Smac/DIABLO

To investigate the mechanism of radioresistance of solid tumor cells, we created two expression vectors encoding Survivin mutants, T34A and D53A. When T34A and D53A were overexpressed in NIH3T3, A549 and HeLa cells, radiation-induced apoptosis was significantly enhanced. Furthermore, we examined the binding capability of Survivin with Smac/DIABLO in the cells that overexpressed these mutants. Coimmunoprecipitation analysis revealed that mutant form of Survivin, D53A and T34A could bind to Smac/DIABLO, but with much less affinity compared to the authentic form. These results suggest that radiation-induced apoptosis of tumor cells is increased by inhibition of the interaction between Survivin and Smac/DIABLO through overexpression of T34A and D53A.     

NF-kappaB-dependent MnSOD expression protects adenocarcinoma cells from TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis

NF-kappaB is known to exert a cytoprotective action against TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis. To study the role of NF-kappaB in various TNF-alpha-treated epithelial cell lines, we generated stable transfectants overexpressing a mutated unresponsive form of the IkappaBalpha inhibitor (MT cells). As NF-kappaB prevented TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis in various epithelial cancer cell lines, we searched for NF-kappaB target gene products responsible for this difference of sensitivity. We observed an increased Bcl-X(L) expression level in OVCAR-3 cells compared with OVCAR-3 cells expressing a mutated IkappaBalpha inhibitor (MT cells). Induction of the antioxidant enzyme MnSOD was detected only in TNF-alpha-treated OVCAR, MCF7A/Z and HCT116 cells but not in MT cells. Moreover, reactive oxygen species were involved in TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis, as various antioxidants partially protected these cells from apoptosis. At last, transfection of the MnSOD cDNA in MT cells, which do not express this protein after TNF-alpha stimulation, partially restored resistance to TNF-alpha-induced cell death, as observed by clonogenic assays. However, transfection of the Bcl-X(L) cDNA did not induce any protective effect. Therefore, MnSOD expression is induced by NF-kappaB in epithelial cancer cells in response to TNF-alpha, and is at least partially responsible for their resistance to TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis, presumably through the clearance of death-inducing ROS.     

Role of Smac/DIABLO in cancer progression

Second mitochondria-derived activator of caspase/direct inhibitor of apoptosis-binding protein with low pI (Smac/DIABLO) is a proapoptogenic mitochondrial protein that is released to the cytosol in response to diverse apoptotic stimuli, including commonly used chemotherapeutic drugs. In the cytosol, Smac/DIABLO interacts and antagonizes inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs), thus allowing the activation of caspases and apoptosis. This activity has prompted the synthesis of peptidomimetics that could potentially be used in cancer therapy. For these reasons, several authors have analyzed the expression levels of Smac/DIABLO in samples of patients from different tumors. Although dissimilar results have been found, a tissue-specific role of this protein emerges from the data. The objective of this review is to present the current knowledge of the Smac/DIABLO role in cancer and its possible use as a marker or therapeutic target for drug design.     

MnSOD inhibits proline oxidase-induced apoptosis in colorectal cancer cells

Proline oxidase (POX), localized on inner mitochondrial membranes, is encoded by a p53-induced gene and metabolically participates in p53-induced apoptosis. Previously, we showed that POX catalyzed the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). We and others have demonstrated that overexpression of POX, independent of p53, causes apoptotic cell death in a variety of cancer cells. But a necessary role for ROS remains uncertain. Therefore, we asked whether superoxide dismutases (SOD) and catalase (CAT), important antioxidant enzymes, might interfere with the POX-dependent induction of apoptosis. In this study, we used DLD-1 colorectal cancer cells stably transfected with the POX gene under the control of a tetracycline-inducible promoter. When doxycycline was removed from the culture medium and the expression of POX was induced, apoptotic cell death was initiated. To examine the importance of the ROS-dependent component of the pathway, we infected DLD-1 POX cells with recombinant adenoviruses containing MnSOD, CuZnSOD, CAT or varying combinations of these adenoviruses followed by induced expression of POX. The expression of MnSOD inhibited POX-induced apoptosis, but others did not. Mechanistically, mitochondria-localized MnSOD dramatically reduced the release of cytochrome c to cytosol by POX. Compared with control cells, MnSOD-expressing DLD-1 POX cells generated a higher concentration of H2O2 owing to dismutation of superoxide radicals, which was elevated by POX. Thus, these data further suggest that the generation of superoxide radicals plays a crucial role in POX-induced apoptosis and the process is partially blocked by MnSOD.     

VEGF和Smac/DIABLO对胶质瘤细胞凋亡及化疗敏感性的影响

目的:旨在研究血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)和第二线粒体衍生的caspase激活剂(second mitochondrial activator of caspase,Smac)/低等电点凋亡抑制蛋白直接结合蛋白(direct IAP binding protein with low PI,DIABLO)在胶质瘤发生和发展中的作用。方法:采用慢病毒介导的RNA干扰技术沉默VEGF基因在胶质瘤细胞U251中的表达;分别采用实时荧光定量PCR(real-time?uorogenic quantitative-PCR,RFQ-PCR)和蛋白质印迹法检测VEGF和Smac/DIABLO mRNA及蛋白在U251细胞中的表达水平;采用蛋白质印迹法检测磷酸化细胞外蛋白调节激酶(extracellular regulated protein kinase,ERK)的表达;FCM检测VEGF沉默对细胞周期的影响;MTT法检测VEGF沉默对U251细胞化疗敏感性的影响。结果:VEGF基因沉默可导致VEGF和Smac/DIABLO mRNA及蛋白表达水平的下调,并抑制磷酸化ERK的表达,提示VEGF是Smac/DIABLO的上游调节因子,通过激活ERK的信号通路调节Smac/DIABLO的表达水平。VEGF基因沉默导致U251细胞中处于S期的细胞比例增多,并增强顺铂对U251细胞的凋亡诱导作用。结论:VEGF可影响胶质瘤细胞周期的分布以及对顺铂的化疗敏感性。Smac/DIABLO参与了VEGF信号通路。     

Cephalostatin 1 selectively triggers the release of Smac/DIABLO and subsequent apoptosis that is characterized by an increased density of the mitochondrial matrix

Cephalostatin 1 is a bis-steroidal marine natural product with a unique cytotoxicity profile in the in vitro screen system of the National Cancer Institute, suggesting that it may affect novel molecular target(s). Here we show that cephalostatin 1 induces a novel pathway of receptor-independent apoptosis that selectively uses Smac/DIABLO (second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases/direct inhibitor of apoptosis-binding protein with a low isoelectric point) as a mitochondrial signaling molecule. At nanomolar concentrations, cephalostatin 1 triggers dose- and time-dependent DNA fragmentation in leukemia Jurkat T cells. Apoptosis was found to be dependent on caspase activity because the pan-caspase inhibitor benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp(OMe)-fluoromethylketone blocks cephalostatin 1-mediated DNA fragmentation. The CD95 death receptor as well as other caspase-8-requiring death receptors were not involved because Jurkat T cells lacking the CD95 receptor or caspase-8 and control cells responded equally to cephalostatin 1. Although cephalostatin 1 affects mitochondria by dissipating the mitochondrial membrane potential, neither cytochrome c nor apoptosis-inducing factor is released, as shown by Western blot analysis. Interestingly, cephalostatin 1 selectively triggers the mitochondrial release of the inhibitor of apoptosis antagonist Smac/DIABLO. Overexpression of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-x(L) delayed both Smac/DIABLO release and onset of apoptosis, suggesting that Smac/DIABLO is required for cephalostatin 1-induced apoptosis. This new mitochondrial pathway is accompanied by marked structural changes of mitochondria as shown by transmission electron microscopy.     

抑制JNK通路对TRAIL诱导胃癌细胞凋亡影响的研究

目的:研究JNK信号传导通路对TRAIL诱导胃癌细胞凋亡的影响。方法:四甲基偶氮唑蓝(MTT)比色法测定细胞活力;蛋白质印迹法检测细胞内磷酸化JNK及总JNK的表达水平;流式细胞术碘化丙啶(PI)染色检测细胞凋亡及细胞周期分布。为研究JNK通路活性对TRAIL抗肿瘤作用的影响,将实验分为空白对照组、TRAIL单药组(100μg/L)、JNK抑制剂组(SP600125,20μmol/L)和联合用药组(SP600125+TRAIL)。结果:采用25、50、100和200μg/LTRAIL作用于MGC803细胞24 h,细胞活力仅轻度下降。进一步研究发现,TRAIL作用后细胞内磷酸化JNK水平明显升高,提示JNK信号通路被活化。同TRAIL单药组相比,联合用药组的细胞活力明显降低〔(53.5±3.2)%vs(88.3±1.1)%,P<0.05〕,细胞凋亡明显增加〔(21.3±5.1)%vs(5.7±0.1)%,P<0.05〕,G2/M期细胞比例明显升高〔(38.0±6.0)%vs(25.7±2.9)%,P<0.05〕。结论:抑制JNK通路能明显增强TRAIL对MGC803细胞的抗肿瘤作用,其机制可能与诱导细胞凋亡及G2/M期阻滞有关。     

Smac/DIABLO与Livin在乳腺癌组织表达及其临床意义

目的：探讨凋亡促进因子Smac/DIABLO和凋亡抑制因子Livin在人乳腺癌组织中的表达及相关性,分析其与乳腺癌转移复发的关系。方法：应用免疫组织化学SP法检测76例乳腺癌组织和相应的癌旁组织中Livin和Smac蛋白的表达情况。结果：76例乳腺癌组织中Livin蛋白表达的阳性率为67.8%（51/76）,显著高于相应的癌旁组织的59.2%（36/76）,P〈0.05;乳腺癌组织中Smac表达为52.6%（40/76）,显著低于癌旁组织的75.0%（57/76）,P〈0.05。两者的表达与组织学分级、肿瘤大小、腋窝淋巴结转移以及术后复发密切相关,P〈0.05。Livin和Smac表达呈显著负相关,γ=-0.238,P〈0.05。结论：Livin的高表达及Smac/DIABLO的低表达或失活可能在乳腺癌的发生、发展中起重要作用。     

Chemosensitization of hormone-refractory prostate cancer cells by curcumin to TRAIL-induced apoptosis

Failure to undergo apoptosis has been implicated in the resistance of tumor cells to anticancer therapies. Promotion of apoptosis in tumor cells could potentially increase the efficacy of conventional treatment regimens and improve prognosis. Prostate cancer cells are generally resistant to induction of apoptosis by anticancer agents and death ligands. We investigated the sensitization of prostate cancer cell lines by curcumin (diferuloyl-methane) to TNF-related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL)-induced apoptosis. Prostate cancer cells treated with curcumin or TRAIL or curcumin and TRAIL together were assessed for induction of apoptosis and pathway of apoptosis was determined from the activation of procaspases and release of cytochrome c from mitochondria. Curcumin sensitized LNCaP, DU145 and PC3 tumor cell lines to TRAIL. Combined curcumin and TRAIL treatment produced the most loss of viable cells by inducing apoptosis as revealed by accumulation of hypodiploid cells in sub-G1 phase, enhanced annexin V binding, DNA fragmentation, cleavage of procaspases-3, -8, and 9, truncation of proapoptotic Bid, and release of cytochrome c from mitochondria. Tumor cells expressed constitutively active NF-kappaB and sensitization to TRAIL involved inhibition of NF-kappaB by curcumin. These findings suggest that combined curcumin/TRAIL chemo-immunotherapy may be a beneficial adjunct to the standard therapeutic regimens for prostate cancer.     

Smac/DIABLO与Livin在乳腺癌组织表达及其临床意义

目的:探讨凋亡促进因子Smac/DIABLO和凋亡抑制因子Livin在人乳腺癌组织中的表达及相关性,分析其与乳腺癌转移复发的关系。方法:应用免疫组织化学SP法检测76例乳腺癌组织和相应的癌旁组织中Livin和Smac蛋白的表达情况。结果:76例乳腺癌组织中Livin蛋白表达的阳性率为67.8%(51/76),显著高于相应的癌旁组织的59.2%(36/76),P<0.05;乳腺癌组织中Smac表达为52.6%(40/76),显著低于癌旁组织的75.0%(57/76),P<0.05。两者的表达与组织学分级、肿瘤大小、腋窝淋巴结转移以及术后复发密切相关,P<0.05。Livin和Smac表达呈显著负相关,γ=-0.238,P<0.05。结论:Livin的高表达及Smac/DIABLO的低表达或失活可能在乳腺癌的发生、发展中起重要作用。     

High Smac/DIABLO expression is associated with early local recurrence of cervical cancer

Background  

In a recent pilot report, we showed that Smac/DIABLO mRNA is expressed de novo in a subset of cervical cancer patients. We have now expanded this study and analyzed Smac/DIABLO expression in the primary lesions in 109 cervical cancer patients.     

HDAC2 attenuates TRAIL-induced apoptosis of pancreatic cancer cells

Background  

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of the most malignant tumors with a dismal prognosis and no effective conservative therapeutic strategies. Although it is demonstrated that histone deacetylases (HDACs), especially the class I HDACs HDAC1, 2 and 3 are highly expressed in this disease, little is known about HDAC isoenzyme specific functions.     

Sensitization of tumor cells to Apo2 ligand/TRAIL-induced apoptosis by inhibition of casein kinase II

Tumor-cell death can be triggered by engagement of specific death receptors with Apo2 ligand/tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (Apo2L/TRAIL). Apo2L/TRAIL-induced apoptosis involves caspase-8-mediated cleavage of BID. The active truncated form of BID (tBID) triggers the mitochondrial activation of caspase-9 by inducing the activation of BAK or BAX. Although a broad spectrum of human cancer cell lines express death receptors for Apo2L/TRAIL, many remain resistant to TRAIL/Apo2L-induced death. A variety of human cancers exhibit increased activity of casein kinase II (CK2). Here we demonstrate that CK2 is at the nexus of two signaling pathways that protect tumor cells from Apo2L/TRAIL-induced apoptosis. We find that CK2 inhibits Apo2L/TRAIL-induced caspase-8-mediated cleavage of BID, thereby reducing the formation of tBID. In addition, CK2 promotes nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappa B)-mediated expression of Bcl-x(L), which sequesters tBID and curtails its ability to activate BAX. Tumor cells with constitutive activation of CK2 exhibit a high Bcl-x(L)/tBID ratio and fail to activate caspase-9 or undergo apoptosis in response to Apo2L/TRAIL. Conversely, reduction of the Bcl-x(L)/tBID ratio by inhibition of CK2 renders such cancer cells sensitive to Apo2L/TRAIL-induced activation of caspase-9 and apoptosis. Using isogenic cancer cell lines that differ only in the presence or absence of either the p53 tumor suppressor or the BAX gene, we show that the enhancement of Apo2L/TRAIL-induced tumor-cell death by CK2 inhibitors requires BAX, but not p53. The identification of CK2 as a key survival signal that protects tumor cells from death-receptor-induced apoptosis could aid the design of Apo2L/TRAIL-based combination regimens for treatment of diverse cancers.     

蛋白激酶B抑制线粒体Smac释放与卵巢癌顺铂耐药的关系

目的 探讨蛋白激酶B(Akt)和线粒体促凋亡蛋白(Smac)在顺铂诱导的卵巢癌细胞凋亡中的关系及Akt在卵巢癌顺铂耐药中的分子机制.方法 应用Western blot检测顺铂作用前后卵巢癌顺铂敏感细胞OV2008、A2780s和顺铂耐药细胞C13*、A2780cp中Smac含量.将Smac siRNA和Smac N7多肽分别导人0V2008和C13*细胞中,应用流式细胞仪测定细胞的凋亡率,观察稳定转染Akt2的A2780s(A2780s-AAkt2)细胞和转染Akt1/2siRNA的C13*细胞对顺铂耐药性的改变.结果顺铂能导致OV2008、A2780s细胞线粒体释放Smac,并引起细胞凋亡(P＜0.05);但在C13*和A2780cp细胞中无此反应(P＞0.05).转染Smac siRNA后的0V2008细胞,其Smac表达降低,对顺铂的耐药性增加;转染Smac N7多肽能增加C13*细胞对顺铂的敏感性;Akt2过度表达可抑制A2780s细胞Smac释放,并对顺铂产生了耐药性;应用Akt1/2 siRNA后可下调C13*细胞中Akt1/2的表达,使C13*细胞对顺铂的敏感性增加.结论 顺铂对卵巢癌细胞的杀伤在一定程度上是通过线粒体释放Smac所致;Akt抑制了线粒体Smac释放与卵巢癌化疗耐药部分相关.