The motivation and mental health of sex workers

Commercial sex work presents specific mental health concerns. We aimed to study motivation for sex work and mental health issues in a sample of such women. We contacted 55 consenting women through organized brothels and interviewed them using the Farley questionnaire and screening items for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. Eighty-two percent of the women had arrived illegally and had been "trafficked." All but 2 were engaged voluntarily in sex work. Seventeen percent met criteria for PTSD, and 19% were likely to be clinically depressed. We present representative case histories. Availability of mental health treatment for workers in the sex industry could improve compliance with HIV prevention programs and enlarge options for women to leave the sex industry. We observed that stereotypes of sex workers as either always having histories of childhood abuse or as being always "happy hookers" were incorrect.     

Mental health status of World Trade Center rescue and recovery workers and volunteers - New York City, July 2002-August 2004

After the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center (WTC), a comprehensive screening program was established to evaluate the physical and mental health of rescue and recovery workers and volunteers. Persons were eligible for this program if they participated in the WTC rescue or recovery efforts and met specific time criteria for exposure to the site. During July 16, 2002--August 6, 2004, the program evaluated 11,768 workers and volunteers. This report summarizes data analyzed from a subset of 1,138 of the 11,768 participants evaluated at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine during July 16--December 31, 2002. On the basis of one or more standardized screening questionnaires, approximately half (51%) of participants met threshold criteria for a clinical mental health evaluation. Continued surveillance is needed to assess the long-term psychological impact of the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks and to determine needs for continued treatment.     

Physical and mental health symptoms among NYC transit workers seven and one-half months after the WTC attacks

BACKGROUND: On September 11, 2001, 600-800 New York City transit (NYCT) workers were working near the World Trade Center (WTC) Towers. After the disaster, employees reported physical and mental health symptoms related to the event. METHODS: Two hundred sixty-nine NYC transit employees were surveyed for mental and physical health symptoms 7(1/2) months after the WTC disaster. RESULTS: Workers in the dust cloud at the time of the WTC collapse had significantly higher risk of persistent lower respiratory (OR = 9.85; 95% CI: 2.24, 58.93) and mucous membrane (OR = 4.91; 95% CI: 1.53, 16.22) symptoms, depressive symptoms (OR = 2.48; 95% CI: 1.12, 5.51), and PTSD symptoms (OR = 2.91; 95% CI: 1.003, 8.16) compared to those not exposed to the dust cloud. Additional WTC exposures and potential confounders were also analyzed. CONCLUSIONS: Clinical follow up for physical and psychological health conditions should be provided for public transportation workers in the event of a catastrophic event.     

Post-traumatic stress disorder among family physicians in Bosnia and Herzegovina

BACKGROUND: The traumatic events experienced by thousands of people in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the 1992-1995 conflict may have a lasting effect on the mental health of the country, characterized by high rates of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A diagnosis of PTSD among family physicians could affect their ability to diagnose and treat patients for depression, anxiety and PTSD. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of PTSD among family medicine physicians in Bosnia and Herzegovina. METHODS: A self-administered questionnaire, including the PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (PCL-C) which is a validated scale for PTSD screening, was distributed to family medicine residents and specialists in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The prevalence of PTSD was determined, and factors related to PTSD were considered. RESULTS: One hundred and thirty-three (90.5%) of the 147 physicians who were available to be surveyed completed the questionnaire. Of the 88% who had a traumatic experience during the war, 18% met the criteria for PTSD. The likelihood of meeting the criteria for PTSD was not affected by age, sex or whether the physician had worked in a field hospital during the war. However, a positive response to the question "Do you think the traumatic event you experienced during the war still affects you today?" was highly associated with the diagnosis of PTSD (odds ratio 7.26, 95% confidence interval: 1.57-33.60). Also, this question was shown to have a high degree of sensitivity and negative predictive value, and may be of use as a screening tool for ruling out the presence of PTSD after a traumatic war experience.     

An Overview of 9/11 Experiences and Respiratory and Mental Health Conditions among World Trade Center Health Registry Enrollees

To date, health effects of exposure to the September 11, 2001 disaster in New York City have been studied in specific groups, but no studies have estimated its impact across the different exposed populations. This report provides an overview of the World Trade Center Health Registry (WTCHR) enrollees, their exposures, and their respiratory and mental health outcomes 2–3 years post-9/11. Results are extrapolated to the estimated universe of people eligible to enroll in the WTCHR to determine magnitude of impact. Building occupants, persons on the street or in transit in lower Manhattan on 9/11, local residents, rescue and recovery workers/volunteers, and area school children and staff were interviewed and enrolled in the WTCHR between September 2003 and November 2004. A total of 71,437 people enrolled in the WTCHR, for 17.4% coverage of the estimated eligible exposed population (nearly 410,000); 30% were recruited from lists, and 70% were self-identified. Many reported being in the dust cloud from the collapsing WTC Towers (51%), witnessing traumatic events (70%), or sustaining an injury (13%). After 9/11, 67% of adult enrollees reported new or worsening respiratory symptoms, 3% reported newly diagnosed asthma, 16% screened positive for probable posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and 8% for serious psychological distress (SPD). Newly diagnosed asthma was most common among rescue and recovery workers who worked on the debris pile (4.1%). PTSD was higher among those who reported Hispanic ethnicity (30%), household income <$25,000 (31%), or being injured (35%). Using previously published estimates of the total number of exposed people per WTCHR eligibility criteria, we estimate between 3,800 and 12,600 adults experienced newly diagnosed asthma and 34,600–70,200 adults experienced PTSD following the attacks, suggesting extensive adverse health impacts beyond the immediate deaths and injuries from the acute event.     

Posttraumatic stress disorder and health status: the veterans health study

This article examines the association between self-reported prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and health status in a sample of 2425 male Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) ambulatory care patients who participated in the Veterans Health Study. Participants were recruited at 1 of 4 VA outpatient clinics in the Boston area. They completed self-report measures of PTSD (using the PTSD Checklist and measures of exposure to traumatic events), depression (using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies--Depression scale), and health status (using the Short-Form-36) and a medical history interview assessing 22 conditions and a history of psychiatric treatment. The screening prevalence of PTSD was 20.2% among all patients (24.3% among those exposed to traumatic events); another 15.5% met the criteria for depression but not PTSD. The health status of patients with either PTSD or depression was significantly worse than that of patients with neither disorder, even after controlling for age, education, and number of comorbid medical conditions. Patients with PTSD reported more medical conditions than did other patients. Patients with PTSD currently in mental health treatment had worse health status than did those who reported no treatment; the health status of patients who reported past mental health treatment was generally comparable to that of those with no treatment. The prevalence and comorbidity of PTSD among this sample of VA ambulatory care patients were higher than previously reported among samples of community-residing adults. The association of PTSD with health status was substantial, suggesting that the burden of PTSD is at least comparable to, and may be worse than, that of depression. Mental health treatment alleviated some of this burden. The potential impact of PTSD on health status should be more widely recognized.     

Mental health of female survivors of human trafficking in Nepal

Little is known about the mental health status of trafficked women, even though international conventions require that it be considered. This study, therefore, aims at exploring the mental health status, including anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), of female survivors of human trafficking who are currently supported by local non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in Katmandu, the capital of Nepal, through comparison between those who were forced to work as sex workers and those who worked in other areas such as domestic and circus work (non-sex workers group). The Hopkins Symptoms Checklist-25 (HSCL-25) was administered to assess anxiety and depression, and the PTSD Checklist Civilian Version (PCL-C) was used to evaluate PTSD. Both the sex workers' and the non-sex workers' groups had a high proportion of cases with anxiety, depression, and PTSD. The sex workers group tended to have more anxiety symptoms (97.7%) than the non-sex workers group (87.5%). Regarding depression, all the constituents of the sex workers group scored over the cut-off point (100%), and the group showed a significantly higher prevalence than the non-sex workers (80.8%). The proportion of those who are above the cut-off for PTSD was higher in the sex workers group (29.6%) than in the non-sex workers group (7.5%). There was a higher rate of HIV infection in the sex workers group (29.6%) than in the non-sex workers group (0%). The findings suggest that programs to address human trafficking should include interventions (such as psychosocial support) to improve survivors' mental health status, paying attention to the category of work performed during the trafficking period. In particular, the current efforts of the United Nations and various NGOs that help survivors of human trafficking need to more explicitly focus on mental health and psychosocial support.     

Influence of work environment on emotional health in a health care setting

BACKGROUND: Radical changes are taking place in health care services and might be expected to cause job dissatisfaction, absenteeism, somatic complaints and mental health problems. Research in this area is limited and focused primarily on nurses. AIM: To understand the impact of the work environment on the emotional health of doctors and nurses in a general hospital setting. METHODS: Cross-sectional study using self-reported questionnaires including the General Health Questionnaire, the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Checklist for Civilians, the Trauma Experiences and Work Environment Scale. RESULTS: The response rates for the study were 28% (60) for doctors and 54% (431) for nurses. Whilst the prevalences of psychiatric disorder, anxiety, depression and PTSD were higher for doctors compared with nurses, this was not statistically significant. Both groups reported witnessing someone badly injured or killed as their most distressing experience (doctors 46% versus nurses 41%). Using multiple logistic regression, significant predictors of emotional health was task orientation for doctors (OR = 1.96, 95% CI = 1.1-3.6), and PTSD (OR = 17.2, 95% CI = 6.0-49.6), work pressure (OR = 1.2, 95% CI = 1.01-1.4) and innovation (OR = 0.81, 95% CI = 0.70-0.94) for nurses. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of psychiatric disorder among the doctors and nurses was similar to that in Britain. Elements of the work environment did impact on the emotional health of health care workers. Organizational development initiatives should include employee mental health issues in order to create a more positive work environment.     

The world trade center clean up and recovery worker cohort study: respiratory health amongst cleanup workers approximately 20 months after initial exposure at the disaster site

OBJECTIVE: Respiratory health among cleanup workers at the World Trade Center (WTC) disaster site was evaluated approximately 20 months after the initial exposure to assess the risk of lower respiratory symptoms. METHODS: In 2003 a self-administered questionnaire requesting information about site experience, current respiratory and historical health, and smoking was sent to 4,546 workers employed at the site (response 25%), and 2103 workers who were never at the WTC (response 12%). RESULTS: As compared with those never at the site, WTC workers were more than three times as likely to report any lower respiratory symptoms (rate ratio = 3.40, 95% confidence interval: 2.33-4.94). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest an impact on respiratory health related to work experience at the WTC and indicate further monitoring to address potential long-term effects.     

Depression,anxiety, and associated health status in low-income Chinese patients

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the prevalence of mental disorders and the associated impact on health status in low-income immigrant Chinese Americans. METHODS: This cross-sectional study surveyed low-income Chinese patients attending a community health center in Chinatown (New York City) from July through November 2001 to determine the prevalence of depressive and anxiety disorders. Selected modules translated into Chinese from the Primary Care Evaluation of Mental Disorders Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ), a self-administered measure designed to diagnose mental health disorders in primary care, were used. To assess the relationship between mental disorders and health status and to examine convergent validity, mean scores on the Medical Outcomes Study 36-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-36) were examined according to PHQ diagnoses and calculated severity of depression. RESULTS: A total of 856 patients were approached and data were obtained from 523 (61%) eligible participants. Thirty-two (6.1%) patients met the established criteria for major depressive disorder; 26 (5.0%) patients met the criteria for other depressive disorder; and 24 (4.6%) patients met the criteria for other anxiety disorder. Compared to patients without depression or anxiety, patients with major depressive and other anxiety disorder had significantly lower mean scores on all eight SF-36 subscales, while patients with other depressive disorder had lower mean scores on all subscales except for physical functioning. SF-36 subscale scores tended to decrease with increasing depression severity. CONCLUSIONS: Depression and anxiety were prevalent and demonstrated an adverse impact on health status, as measured by the SF-36. Strategies for screening for mental disorders may vary depending on the needs of the primary care setting and may be accomplished using a general health status measure or a disease-specific approach.     

Health effects and occupational exposures among office workers near the World Trade Center disaster site

The extent of health effects and exposure to environmental contaminants among workers and residents indirectly affected by the September 11, 2001, attack on the World Trade Center (WTC) is unknown. The objective of this study was to evaluate concerns related to health effects and occupational exposures three months after the WTC disaster among a population of employees working in a building close to the disaster site. A cross-sectional questionnaire survey was performed of Federal employees working near the WTC site in New York City (NYC) and a comparison group of Federal employees in Dallas, Texas. An industrial hygiene evaluation of the NYC workplace was conducted. Constitutional and mental health symptoms were reported more frequently among workers in NYC compared to those in Dallas; level of social support was inversely related to prevalence of mental health symptoms. Post-September 11th counseling services were utilized to a greater degree among workers in NYC, while utilization of other types of medical services did not differ significantly between the groups. No occupational exposures to substances at concentrations that would explain the reported constitutional symptoms were found; however, we were unable to assess potential occupational exposures in the time immediately after the WTC disaster. There is no evidence of ongoing hazardous exposure to airborne contaminants among the workers surveyed. Specific causes of reported constitutional health symptoms have not been determined. Health care providers and management and employee groups should be aware of the need to address mental health issues as well as constitutional symptoms among the large number of workers in the NYC area who have been indirectly affected by the WTC disaster.     

Mental health interventions by lay counsellors: a systematic review and meta-analysis

ObjectiveTo investigate the effectiveness of community-based mental health interventions by professionally trained, lay counsellors in low- and middle-income countries.MethodsWe searched PubMed®, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, PROSPERO and EBSCO databases and professional section publications of the United States National Center for PTSD for randomized controlled trials of mental health interventions by professionally trained, lay counsellors in low- and middle-income countries published between 2000 and 2019. Studies of interventions by professional mental health workers, medical professionals or community health workers were excluded because there are shortages of these personnel in the study countries. Additional data were obtained from study authors. The primary outcomes were measures of post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety and alcohol use. To estimate effect size, we used a random-effects meta-analysis model.FindingsWe identified 1072 studies, of which 19 (involving 20 trials and 5612 participants in total) met the inclusion criteria. Hedges'' g for the aggregate effect size of the interventions by professionally trained, lay counsellors compared with mostly either no intervention or usual care was −0.616 (95% confidence interval: −0.866 to −0.366). This result indicates a significant, medium-sized effect. There was no evidence of publication bias or any other form of bias across the studies and there were no extreme outliers among the study results.ConclusionThe use of professionally trained, lay counsellors to provide mental health interventions in low- and middle-income countries was associated with significant improvements in mental health symptoms across a range of settings.     

The psychological impact of the Israel-Hezbollah War on Jews and Arabs in Israel: the impact of risk and resilience factors

Although there is abundant evidence that mass traumas are associated with adverse mental health consequences, few studies have used nationally representative samples to examine the impact of war on civilians, and none have examined the impact of the Israel-Hezbollah War, which involved unprecedented levels of civilian trauma exposure from July 12 to August 14, 2006. The aims of this study were to document probable post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), determined by the PTSD Symptom Scale and self-reported functional impairment, in Jewish and Arab residents of Israel immediately after the Israel-Hezbollah War and to assess potential risk and resilience factors. A telephone survey was conducted August 15-October 5, 2006, following the cessation of rocket attacks. Stratified random sampling methods yielded a nationally representative population sample of 1200 adult Israeli residents. The rate of probable PTSD was 7.2%. Higher risk of probable PTSD was associated with being a woman, recent trauma exposure, economic loss, and higher psychosocial resource loss. Lower risk of probable PTSD was associated with higher education. The results suggest that economic and psychosocial resource loss, in addition to trauma exposure, have an impact on post-trauma functioning. Thus, interventions that bolster these resources might prove effective in alleviating civilian psychopathology during war.     

Mental health impact of 9/11 Pentagon attack: validation of a rapid assessment tool

BACKGROUND: Following the tragic events of 9/11/2001, the Pentagon Post Disaster Health Assessment (PPDHA) survey was created to identify healthcare needs and concerns among Pentagon personnel and to assure that appropriate care and information was provided. The PPDHA was fielded from October 15, 2001, to January 15, 2002. Fundamental in this assessment was the evaluation of the mental health impact as a result of the attack. METHODS: Although a number of standardized instruments exist for mental health domains, most are lengthy and could not be used as a rapid health assessment. Instead, a short screening instrument consisting of 17 questions was developed that covered important mental health symptom domains, mental health functioning, and possible predictive risk factors. High-risk groups for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, panic attacks, generalized anxiety, and alcohol abuse were assessed, and validation of risk groups was assessed across functional levels. RESULTS: Overall, 1837 (40%) respondents met the screening criteria for any of the symptom domains of interest 1 to 4 months after the attack: PTSD (7.9%), depression (17.7%), panic attacks (23.1%), generalized anxiety (26.9%), or alcohol abuse (2.5%). Mental health risk groups were highly correlated with self-reported reduced daily functioning and use of counseling services. Additionally, risk factors known to be associated with mental health problems after traumatic events were strongly predictive of the high-risk categories identified. CONCLUSIONS: Mental health concerns were common among Pentagon employees in the 4 months after the 9/11 attack. Data from this study suggested that the short mental health screening instrument had validity and can serve as a prototype for rapid public health assessment of the mental health impact of future traumatic events.     

Life in and after the Armed Forces: social networks and mental health in the UK military

This study focuses on the influence of structural aspects of social integration (social networks and social participation outside work) on mental health (common mental disorders (CMD), that is, depression and anxiety symptoms, post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and alcohol misuse). This study examines differences in levels of social integration and associations between social integration and mental health among service leavers and personnel still in service. Data were collected from regular serving personnel (n = 6511) and regular service leavers (n = 1753), from a representative cohort study of the Armed Forces in the UK. We found that service leavers reported less social participation outside work and a general disengagement with military social contacts in comparison to serving personnel. Service leavers were more likely to report CMD and PTSD symptoms. The increased risk of CMD but not PTSD symptoms, was partially accounted for by the reduced levels of social integration among the service leavers. Maintaining social networks in which most members are still in the military is associated with alcohol misuse for both groups, but it is related to CMD and PTSD symptoms for service leavers only.     

Karenni refugees living in Thai-Burmese border camps: traumatic experiences, mental health outcomes, and social functioning

In June 2001, we assessed mental health problems among Karenni refugees residing in camps in Mae Hong Son, Thailand, to determine the prevalence of mental illness, identify risk factors, and develop a culturally appropriate intervention program. A systematic random sample was used with stratification for the three camps; 495 people aged 15 years or older from 317 households participated. We constructed a questionnaire that included demographic characteristics, culture-specific symptoms of mental illness, the Hopkins Symptoms Checklist-25, the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire, and selected questions from the SF-36 Health Survey. Mental health outcome scores indicated elevated levels of depression and anxiety symptoms; post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) scores were comparable to scores in other communities affected by war and persecution. Psychosocial risk factors for poorer mental health and social functioning outcomes were insufficient food, higher number of trauma events, previous mental illness, and landmine injuries. Modifications in refugee policy may improve social functioning, and innovative mental health and psychosocial programs need to be implemented, monitored, and evaluated for efficacy.     

Posttraumatic stress disorder in primary care

BACKGROUND: Primary care providers are aware of the importance of identifying depression and anxiety in their patients. The diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), however, is less of a priority. METHODS: Primary care physicians and nurse practitioners in an outpatient facility of a large health maintenance organization administered a psychiatric screening questionnaire to patients whom they suspected had depression or anxiety. Patients with positive results were referred for immediate consultation with a clinical psychologist. RESULTS: One hundred fourteen (38.6%) of the 296 patients referred for consultation met Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fourth Edition) diagnostic criteria for PTSD. The most frequent traumas associated with PTSD were adult domestic violence and childhood abuse. Patients with a diagnosis of PTSD were frequent users of medical services in the 12 months before diagnosis. The majority of patients sought treatment in primary care settings, not mental health settings. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with PTSD often visit outpatient primary care settings. Medical providers may identify symptoms of depression or anxiety but may not recognize PTSD because of the high degree of overlap between these conditions, and the lack of familiarity with PTSD diagnostic criteria. We provide screening questions that may help physicians detect PTSD in their practices.     

社会支持在消防员创伤后应激障碍与心理健康中的中介效应分析

  目的  探讨消防员创伤后应激障碍（post-traumatic stress disorder,PTSD）、心理健康及社会支持之间的关系,为提高消防人员的心理健康水平提供理论依据。
  方法  选取兰州市某地159名消防员,采用创伤后应激障碍量表、心理健康量表（SCL-90）以及社会支持量表对其进行问卷调查,并采用SPSS 22.0进行数据分析。
  结果  159名消防员SCL-90量表均值（118.52 ± 35.07）分,PTSD量表均值（21.62 ± 7.56）分,社会支持量表均值（26.46 ± 6.03）分。PTSD与SCL-90量表得分呈正相关（r = 0.88,P < 0.01）,社会支持与SCL-90量表得分呈负相关（r = - 0.39,P < 0.01）,社会支持与PTSD量表得分呈负相关（r = - 0.32,P < 0.01）。社会支持在PTSD和SCL-90之间的中介效应有统计学意义（P < 0.05）,中介效应值为0.042,中介效应占总效应的4.8%。
  结论  对经历了突发负性事件的消防员,可以通过提高他们的社会支持,降低负性事件带给他们的焦虑、抑郁、恐惧等心理,从而提高他们的心理健康水平。
     

The prevalence of common mental disorders among hospital physicians and their association with self-reported work ability: a cross-sectional study

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: We studied the prevalence of common mental disorders among Dutch hospital physicians and investigated whether the presence of a mental disorder was associated with insufficient self-reported work ability. METHODS: A questionnaire was sent to all (n=958) hospital physicians of one academic medical center, using validated scales to assess burnout, work-related fatigue, stress, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety and depression. Furthermore, respondents were asked to rate their current work ability against the work ability in their own best period (adapted version of the first WAI item). The prevalence of each common mental disorder was calculated. In addition, odds ratios of reporting insufficient work ability for subjects with high complaint scores compared to patients with low complaint scores were calculated for each mental disorder. RESULTS: The response rate was 51%, and 423 questionnaires were eligible for analysis. The mental disorder prevalence rates were as follows: work-related fatigue 42%, depression 29%, anxiety 24%, posttraumatic stress complaints 15%, stress complaints 15% and burnout 6%. The mean score for self-reported work ability was 8.1 (range 0-10), and 4% of respondents rated their own work ability as insufficient. Physicians with high mental health complaints were 3.5- for fatigue, 5.6- for PTSD, 7.1- for anxiety, 9.5- for burnout, 10.8- for depression and 13.6-fold more likely to report their work ability as insufficient. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of common mental disorders among hospital physicians varied from 6% for burnout to 42% for work-related fatigue. Those physicians with high complaints had significantly 4- to 14 times increased odds of reporting their own work ability as insufficient. This work suggests that to ensure future workers health and patients safety occupational health services should plan appropriate intervention strategies.