不同能量X线胸段食管癌调强放疗计划的剂量学研究

目的:研究不同能量X射线治疗胸段食管癌调强放疗(IMRT)计划的剂量学差异。方法:选择l2例胸段食管癌患者,在ADAC Pinnacle3三维治疗计划系统(TPS)中分别采用6 MV、10 MV和15 MV X线给每位患者设计三个调强放疗计划,在规定计划靶区(PTV)至少达到95%处方剂量的前提下,根据剂量体积直方图(DVH)比较三种计划的靶区剂量分布及脊髓、肺、心脏等正常组织受照射剂量的差异。结果:三种计划中靶区的最大剂量、最小剂量、平均剂量及靶区适形度指数、均匀性指数均无明显差异,但15 MV计划高剂量覆盖程度大于6 MV和10 MV计划,脊髓、双肺及心脏受照剂量都在可耐受的范围内,差异也无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论:6 MV、10 MV、15 MV X射线都能满足胸段食管癌临床调强放疗需求。     

侧向电子失衡对肺部肿瘤放射治疗计划设计的影响

目的 :分析高能X射线通过低密度的肺组织时 ,侧向电子失衡对肺部肿瘤放射治疗计划的影响。方法 :用 6MV和 18MVX射线对一例肺癌进行三维适形治疗 (3D CRT)计划设计 ,并用Helax TMS计划系统提供的笔形束算法和筒串算法对两种能量下的布野方案相同的 3D CRT计划进行剂量计算 ,比较靶区及危及器官的剂量分布、DVH等指标。结果 :采用笔形束算法 6MV与 18MV计划的等剂量线和DVH相近 ,18MV计划的靶区剂量均匀性略优于 6MV计划 ;而当采用能进行电子侧向散射修正的筒串算法时 ,靶区的高剂量覆盖程度明显变差 ,18MV计划靶区剂量亏损更为显著 ,6MV计划高剂量覆盖靶区的程度优于 18MV计划 ;不同能量、算法下肺和脊髓的受量基本相同。结论 :对于肺部肿瘤 ,剂量计算应采用能够准确修正不均匀组织影响的算法 ,非调强放射治疗时最好使用 6MVX射线。     

逆向与正向3D—CRT计划设计方法在肺癌放疗中的剂量学比较

目的:分析、比较用于治疗非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC)的逆向三维适形(inverse 3D-CRT)和正向三维适形)forward3D-CRT)计划.方法:随机选择10例NSCLC患者,采用6 MVX射线对每例NSCLC进行逆向和正向3D-CRT的治疗计划设计,处方剂量为60 Gy/2 Gy/30次.所有计划都使95%靶区体积达到处方剂量要求.并用ADAC Pirmacle3计划系统提供的卷积/迭加(convolution/superposition)算法对两种放疗计划进行剂量计算,比较靶区及危及器官的剂量分布、DVH等指标.结果:逆向3D-CRT与正向3D-CRT放疗计划的等剂量线和DVH相近,两种计划设计方法的差异无显著性意义.逆向3D-CRT和正向3D-CRT放疗计划中各危及器官(OARs)包括食管、心脏、正常肺组织的受照剂量基本相同.而前者的脊髓受量大大降低.结论:对于NSCLC,逆向3D-CRT放疗计划设计方法能够明显降低脊髓的受照剂量,并缩短了计划设计的时间,值得在临床推广应用.     

PBC算法与AAA算法在肺癌调强放疗中的剂量学比较

目的:分析、比较笔形束卷积算法(PBC)和各向异性解析算法(AAA)在非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC)调强放疗计划设计中的剂量学差异。方法:随机选择7例NSCLC患者,采用Eclipse version 7.3.10计划系统提供的PBC算法和AAA算法对每例NSCLC进行IMRT的计划设计,比较靶区及危及器官的剂量分布、DVH等指标。结果:两种算法获得治疗计划的靶区剂量均匀性和适形度均无明显差别,食管、心脏、脊髓等危及器官的受量也基本相同。结论:对于NSCLC,剂量计算应采用受呼吸时相影响更小的AAA算法。     

简化调强技术在脑转移瘤外照射中应用的剂量学研究

目的：通过比较脑转移瘤三维适形放疗（3D-CRT）、调强放疗（IMRT）和简化调强放疗（sIMRT）技术靶区剂量分布均匀性、适形度,危及器官受照体积、剂量,以及实施治疗的机器跳数,对比三者放疗技术的剂量学差异,探讨sIMRT应用于脑转移瘤治疗的可行性。方法：针对10例脑转移瘤患者分别设计3种放疗计划：三维适形放疗、调强放疗和简化调强放疗。保证靶区和危及器官满足临床要求前提下,分别比较3种计划的靶区剂量分布、靶区均匀指数和适形指数、危及器官受照剂量、机器跳数（MU）等,探讨其剂量学差异。结果：3种照射技术均满足临床要求,靶区（PGTV）均匀指数三者没有差异。靶区（PTV）均匀指数sIMRT逊于IMRT,但与3D-CRT无差异。靶区（PGTV、PTV）适形指数sIMRT逊于IMRT而强于3D-CRT。危及器官的保护例如左、右晶体和脑干,sIMRT优于3D-CRT但与IMRT无区别,对左、右视神经和视交叉的保护,IMRT最好,sIMRT和3D-CRT差异不大。机器跳数（MU）以IMRT最多,sIMRT居中,3D-CRT最少,但3D-CRT二程计划增加照射次数,提示实际治疗时间以sIMRT最优。结论：sIMRT可减轻工作人员劳动强度,缩短治疗时间,节省资源,是一种性价比较高的放疗技术,适用于脑转移瘤放疗。     

胸中段食管癌根治性放疗三维适形放疗与调强放疗剂量学比较

目的：比较食管癌根治性放疗三维适形放射治疗（3D-CRT）与调强放射治疗（IMRT）的剂量分布,探讨IMRT在胸中段食管癌放疗的价值。方法：对10例胸中段食管癌病例分别行3D-CRT和IMRT计划设计,应用剂量体积直方图（DVH）比较两种计划靶区剂量、适形度指数（CI）、不均匀度指数（HI）及正常器官受量。结果：在食管癌根治放疗中,IMRT在靶区剂量分布上与3D-CRT各有优劣;IMRT在正常器官的保护上优势明显;肺V5、V10、V20以及全肺平均剂量IMRT均明显优于3D-CRT;心脏V30IMRT低于3D-CRT;脊髓剂量没差别。结论：食管癌根治放疗中IMRT计划在靶区剂量分布上没有明显优势。但可更好保护正常组织。     

肺癌肺内肿瘤不同能量三维适形放疗的比较

目的:研究6 MV和15 MV X射线对肺癌肺内肿瘤三维适形放疗肿瘤组织、危及器官及正常组织剂量的影响。方法:选择11例肺癌肺内肿瘤患者,对每例患者分别采用6 MV和15 MV X射线进行三维适形放疗计划设计,同一患者的两个计划均使用相同的布野方案和剂量体积约束。比较两组计划的计划靶区、危及器官及正常组织的剂量分布。结果:6MV和15 MV两种能量X线三维适形放疗计划计划靶区的剂量分布、均匀性、适形度的差异无显著性意义(P>0.05),危及器官脊髓、食管、心脏,正常组织肺的剂量分布无显著性意义(P>0.05)。结论:肺癌肺内肿瘤6 MV、15 MV三维适形放疗剂量分布无明显差异,三维适形放疗能量用6 MV,不主张用15 MV。     

直肠癌术前不同照射技术剂量学比较

目的:通过比较常规放疗(Con-RT)、三维适形放疗(3DCRT)和调强放疗(IMRT)3种放疗计划模式的剂量分布,探讨直肠癌术前放疗的理想计划模式。方法:选取10例直肠癌术前患者,采用三维治疗计划系统对每例患者分别行3野Con-RT、3野三维适形(3DCRT3)、5野三维适形(3DCRT5)、5野调强放疗(IMRT5)和7野调强放疗(IMRT7)计划设计,利用剂量体积直方图(DVH)评价5种照射技术下靶区和危及器官的体积剂量分布,处方剂量为50 Gy。结果:Con-RT计划中肿瘤靶区(GTV)的最小剂量为(4991.5±69.1)c Gy,靶区内有冷点。计划靶区(PTV)的适形指数(CI):IMRT7IMRT53DCRTCon-RT;PTV的剂量不均匀指数(HI):Con-RT3DCRT33DCRT5IMRT5IMRT7。相比3DCRT计划,IMRT计划减少了小肠、膀胱、股骨头的V40、V50体积(P0.05)。结论:直肠癌术前放疗中Con-RT计划的靶区剂量分布不均,适形度差;相比于3DCRT计划,IMRT计划剂量分布均匀,适形度优,危及器官高剂量照射体积明显减少;在剂量分布和适形度方面,IMRT7计划优于IMRT5计划。     

逆向3D-CRT与IMRT计划设计方法在非小细胞肺癌放疗中的剂量学比较

目的:分析、比较用于治疗非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC)的逆向三维适形(inverse3D-CRT)和调强适形(intensity modulat-ed radiotherapy,IMRT)计划。方法:随机选择10例NSCLC患者,采用6MV X射线对每例NSCLC进行逆向3D-CRT和3组IMRT的治疗计划设计,处方剂量为60Gy/2Gy/30次。所有计划都使95%靶区体积达到处方剂量要求。并用ADACPinnacle3计划系统提供的卷积/迭加(convolution/superposition)算法对两种放疗计划进行剂量计算,比较靶区及正常肺组织的剂量分布(PTV95/V20比值)以及Dmax-Dmin等指标。结果:3组IMRT放疗计划的PTV95/V20比值分别比逆向3D-CRT增加1.08(P=0.014)、0.72(P=0.089)和0.42(P=0.318)。结论:与3D-CRT放疗技术相比较,IMRT技术在提高靶区适形度的同时降低了正常肺组织的受照体积,可在NSCLC的放疗中推广应用。     

鼻咽癌调强适形放射治疗计划与传统计划的比较

目的：对局部晚期鼻咽癌的调强适形放射治疗计划与传统计划进行比较。材料和方法：用计算机治疗计划系统对局部晚期的鼻咽癌患者分别制定调强适形放射治疗（IMRT），三维适形放射治疗（3D-CRT）和双侧对穿野计划，根据剂量适形度，DVH曲线，危及器官所受剂量来对这些计划进行比较。结果：IMRT计划的靶区剂量分布适形度好于其它计划，在CTV覆盖剂量相近的情况下，例如规定大于95%的CTV体积接受60Gy剂量，IMRT计划较好地保护了危及器官，与此同时，IMRT能够给予GTV较高的单次剂量，使95%的GTV体积受到至少68Gy剂量。结论：在局部晚期鼻咽癌的治疗中，与传统方法比，IMRT方法在改善肿瘤靶区高剂量覆盖的同时，也明显地改进了对危及器官的保护，并提高了治疗效率。应该进一步研究规范鼻咽癌的IMRT计划和治疗方法，以便充分发挥这种新技术的临床优势。     

Calculation of effective dose from measurements of secondary neutron spectra and scattered photon dose from dynamic MLC IMRT for 6 MV, 15 MV, and 18 MV beam energies

Effective doses were calculated from the delivery of 6 MV, 15 MV, and 18 MV conventional and intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) prostate treatment plans. ICRP-60 tissue weighting factors were used for the calculations. Photon doses were measured in phantom for all beam energies. Neutron spectra were measured for 15 MV and 18 MV and ICRP-74 quality conversion factors used to calculate ambient dose equivalents. The ambient dose equivalents were corrected for each tissue using neutron depth dose data from the literature. The depth corrected neutron doses were then used as a measure of the neutron component of the ICRP protection quantity, organ equivalent dose. IMRT resulted in an increased photon dose to many organs. However, the IMRT treatments resulted in an overall decrease in effective dose compared to conventional radiotherapy. This decrease correlates to the ability of an intensity-modulated field to minimize dose to critical normal structures in close proximity to the treatment volume. In a comparison of the three beam energies used for the IMRT treatments, 6 MV resulted in the lowest effective dose, while 18 MV resulted in the highest effective dose. This is attributed to the large neutron contribution for 18 MV compared to no neutron contribution for 6 MV.     

Surface and build-up region dosimetry for obliquely incident intensity modulated radiotherapy 6 MV x rays

This study investigates the surface dose and build-up region dosimetry for oblique IMRT beams. The dependence of surface and build-up region doses of 0 degrees (perpendicular incidence) and 75 degrees (oblique incidence) IMRT fields on field size was measured and compared with open field dosimetry. Measurements were performed using a parallel-plate chamber and KODAK EDR2 films in a polystyrene phantom for a 6 cm x 6 cm and a 12 cm x 12 cm, 6 MV photon beam at depths of 0 mm (surface) through dmax. Data were normalized to the dmax value of each field. Four intensity modulated delivery patterns were created and delivered using step-and-shoot IMRT: (1) six static 1 cm x 6 cm strips (IMRTstrip), (2) 12 static 1 cm x 12 cm strips (IMRTstrip), (3) intensity modulated beam patterns created by using the inverse planning optimization software (IMRTopt) for 6 cm x 6 cm, and (4) IMRTopt for 12 cm x 12 cm field sizes. The percent depth doses (PDDs) of 0 degrees, 6 cm x 6 cm IMRTstrip beam at the surface and 5 mm were lower by 8.8% and 1.6%, respectively, compared to the open field. The PDDs of 75 degrees, 6 cm x 6 cm IMRTstrip beam at the surface and 5 mm were lower by 6.7% and 2.4%, respectively, compared to the open field. This study showed that IMRT itself is not contributing to greater skin doses.     

An end-to-end examination of geometric accuracy of IGRT using a new digital accelerator equipped with onboard imaging system

The Varian's new digital linear accelerator (LINAC), TrueBeam STx, is equipped with a high dose rate flattening filter free (FFF) mode (6 MV and 10 MV), a high definition multileaf collimator (2.5 mm leaf width), as well as onboard imaging capabilities. A series of end-to-end phantom tests were performed, TrueBeam-based image guided radiation therapy (IGRT), to determine the geometric accuracy of the image-guided setup and dose delivery process for all beam modalities delivered using intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) and RapidArc. In these tests, an anthropomorphic phantom with a Ball Cube II insert and the analysis software (FilmQA (3cognition)) were used to evaluate the accuracy of TrueBeam image-guided setup and dose delivery. Laser cut EBT2 films with 0.15 mm accuracy were embedded into the phantom. The phantom with the film inserted was first scanned with a GE Discovery-ST CT scanner, and the images were then imported to the planning system. Plans with steep dose fall off surrounding hypothetical targets of different sizes were created using RapidArc and IMRT with FFF and WFF (with flattening filter) beams. Four RapidArc plans (6 MV and 10 MV FFF) and five IMRT plans (6 MV and 10 MV FFF; 6 MV, 10 MV and 15 MV WFF) were studied. The RapidArc plans with 6 MV FFF were planned with target diameters of 1 cm (0.52 cc), 2 cm (4.2 cc) and 3 cm (14.1 cc), and all other plans with a target diameter of 3 cm. Both onboard planar and volumetric imaging procedures were used for phantom setup and target localization. The IMRT and RapidArc plans were then delivered, and the film measurements were compared with the original treatment plans using a gamma criteria of 3%/1 mm and 3%/2 mm. The shifts required in order to align the film measured dose with the calculated dose distributions was attributed to be the targeting error. Targeting accuracy of image-guided treatment using TrueBeam was found to be within 1 mm. For irradiation of the 3 cm target, the gammas (3%, 1 mm) were found to be above 90% in all plan deliveries. For irradiations of smaller targets (2 cm and 1 cm), similar accuracy was achieved for 6 MV and 10 MV beams. Slightly degraded accuracy was observed for irradiations with higher energy beam (15 MV). In general, gammas (3%, 2 mm) were found to be above 97% for all the plans. Our end-to-end tests showed an excellent relative dosimetric agreement and sub-millimeter targeting accuracy for 6 MV and 10 MV beams, using both FFF and WFF delivery methods. However, increased deviations in spatial and dosimetric accuracy were found when treating lesions smaller than 2 cm or with 15 MV beam.     

Photon spectral characteristics of dissimilar 6 MV linear accelerators

This work measures and compares the energy spectra of four dosimetrically matched 6 MV beams, generated from four physically different linear accelerators. The goal of this work is twofold. First, this study determines whether the spectra of dosimetrically matched beams are measurably different. This study also demonstrates that the spectra of clinical photon beams can be measured as a part of the beam data collection process for input to a three-dimensional (3D) treatment planning system. The spectra of 6 MV beams that are dosimetrically matched for clinical use were studied to determine if the beam spectra are similarly matched. Each of the four accelerators examined had a standing waveguide, but with different physical designs. The four accelerators were two Varian 2100C/Ds (one 6 MV/18 MV waveguide and one 6 MV/10 MV waveguide), one Varian 600 C with a vertically mounted waveguide and no bending magnet, and one Siemens MD 6740 with a 6 MV/10 MV waveguide. All four accelerators had percent depth dose curves for the 6 MV beam that were matched within 1.3%. Beam spectra were determined from narrow beam transmission measurements through successive thicknesses of pure aluminum along the central axis of the accelerator, made with a graphite Farmer ion chamber with a Lucite buildup cap. An iterative nonlinear fit using a Marquardt algorithm was used to find each spectrum. Reconstructed spectra show that all four beams have similar energy distributions with only subtle differences, despite the differences in accelerator design. The measured spectra of different 6 MV beams are similar regardless of accelerator design. The measured spectra show excellent agreement with those found by the auto-modeling algorithm in a commercial 3D treatment planning system that uses a convolution dose calculation algorithm. Thus, beam spectra can be acquired in a clinical setting at the time of commissioning as a part of the routine beam data collection.     

Comparative analysis of 60Co intensity-modulated radiation therapy

In this study, we perform a scientific comparative analysis of using (60)Co beams in intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT). In particular, we evaluate the treatment plan quality obtained with (i) 6 MV, 18 MV and (60)Co IMRT; (ii) different numbers of static multileaf collimator (MLC) delivered (60)Co beams and (iii) a helical tomotherapy (60)Co beam geometry. We employ a convex fluence map optimization (FMO) model, which allows for the comparison of plan quality between different beam energies and configurations for a given case. A total of 25 clinical patient cases that each contain volumetric CT studies, primary and secondary delineated targets, and contoured structures were studied: 5 head-and-neck (H&N), 5 prostate, 5 central nervous system (CNS), 5 breast and 5 lung cases. The DICOM plan data were anonymized and exported to the University of Florida optimized radiation therapy (UFORT) treatment planning system. The FMO problem was solved for each case for 5-71 equidistant beams as well as a helical geometry for H&N, prostate, CNS and lung cases, and for 3-7 equidistant beams in the upper hemisphere for breast cases, all with 6 MV, 18 MV and (60)Co dose models. In all cases, 95% of the target volumes received at least the prescribed dose with clinical sparing criteria for critical organs being met for all structures that were not wholly or partially contained within the target volume. Improvements in critical organ sparing were found with an increasing number of equidistant (60)Co beams, yet were marginal above 9 beams for H&N, prostate, CNS and lung. Breast cases produced similar plans for 3-7 beams. A helical (60)Co beam geometry achieved similar plan quality as static plans with 11 equidistant (60)Co beams. Furthermore, 18 MV plans were initially found not to provide the same target coverage as 6 MV and (60)Co plans; however, adjusting the trade-offs in the optimization model allowed equivalent target coverage for 18 MV. For plans with comparable target coverage, critical structure sparing was best achieved with 6 MV beams followed closely by (60)Co beams, with 18 MV beams requiring significantly increased dose to critical structures. In this paper, we report in detail on a representative set of results from these experiments. The results of the investigation demonstrate the potential for IMRT radiotherapy employing commercially available (60)Co sources and a double-focused MLC. Increasing the number of equidistant beams beyond 9 was not observed to significantly improve target coverage or critical organ sparing and static plans were found to produce comparable plans to those obtained using a helical tomotherapy treatment delivery when optimized using the same well-tuned convex FMO model. While previous studies have shown that 18 MV plans are equivalent to 6 MV for prostate IMRT, we found that the 18 MV beams actually required more fluence to provide similar quality target coverage.     

Dose build-up behind air cavities for Co-60, 4, 6 and 8 MV. Measurements and Monte Carlo simulations

It has been shown in several studies that the build-up in photon beams behind air cavities (such as in the head and neck) increases with energy. In this study this effect is investigated over a broad range of energies that have been used for treating head and neck tumours. The study addresses the question of whether an energy lower than 6 MV is desirable and is based on measurements and Monte Carlo (MC) simulations. In a PMMA phantom containing an air cavity (3 x 16 x 3 cm3 at 3 cm depth) an ionization chamber (Capintec PS-033) was used to measure the dose build-up behind the cavity for 4, 6 and 8 MV beam qualities for different field sizes (from 3 x 6 cm2 to 8 x 8 cm2). MC simulations were made using the EGSnrc code for the same geometry and energies as well as for Co-60. Measurements and MC simulations agree well when the fixed-separation plane-parallel chamber measurements have been corrected for the expected over-response in the build-up region. This work demonstrates that the build-up effect of 6 MV is 'closer' to the build-up effect of 8 MV than to that of 4 MV. This suggests that if the build-up effect is of concern when the target volume is in the vicinity of air cavities, 4 MV should be preferred over both 6 MV and 8 MV. This work also shows that the build-up effect for Co-60 is significantly smaller than that of 4 MV. Moreover, the build-up effect increases as the field size decreases. With the increasing use of IMRT (and radiosurgery), small fields are used more frequently making these issues even more relevant. This should be taken into consideration when choosing the accelerator energies for a radiotherapy department.     

Investigation of secondary neutron dose for 18 MV dynamic MLC IMRT delivery

Secondary neutron doses from the delivery of 18 MV conventional and intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) treatment plans were compared. IMRT was delivered using dynamic multileaf collimation (MLC). Additional measurements were made with static MLC using a primary collimated field size of 10 x 10 cm2 and MLC field sizes of 0 x 0, 5 x 5, and 10 x 10 cm2. Neutron spectra were measured and effective doses calculated. The IMRT treatment resulted in a higher neutron fluence and higher dose equivalent. These increases were approximately the ratio of the monitor units. The static MLC measurements were compared to Monte Carlo calculations. The actual component dimensions and materials for the Varian Clinac 2100/2300C including the MLC were modeled with MCNPX to compute the neutron fluence due to neutron production in and around the treatment head. There is excellent agreement between the calculated and measured neutron fluence for the collimated field size of 10 x 10 cm2 with the 0 x 0 cm2 MLC field. Most of the neutrons at the detector location for this geometry are directly from the accelerator head with a small contribution from room scatter. Future studies are needed to investigate the effect of different beam energies used in IMRT incorporating the effects of scattered photon dose as well as secondary neutron dose.     

Monte Carlo evaluation of 6 MV intensity modulated radiotherapy plans for head and neck and lung treatments

Intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) beams may have strong fluence variations and are advantageous at disease sites such as lung and head and neck (H&N), where neighboring tissues have very different electron densities. We use Monte Carlo (MC) dose calculations to evaluate the dosimetric effects of these inhomogeneities for 10 clinical IMRT treatment plans for five lung patients and four H&N patients. All beams are 6 MV photons. "Standard plans" were first produced on a clinical treatment planning system which optimizes beam intensity distributions to meet dose and dose-volume constraints and calculates dose using a measurement-based pencil-beam algorithm with an equivalent pathlength inhomogeneity correction. Patient anatomy and electron densities were obtained from patient-specific CT images. The dose distribution of each beam was recalculated with the MC method, using the same CT images, beam geometry, beam weighting and optimized fluence intensity distributions as the corresponding standard plan. For the lung cases, the MC calculated dose distributions are characterized by reduced penetrations and increased penumbra due to larger secondary electron range in the low-density media, which is not accurately accounted for in the pencil beam algorithm. For the lung cases, the PTV was underdosed; except for one dose-volume index, underdose was less than 10%. Individual H&N fields are affected to different degrees by tissue inhomogeneities, depending on specific anatomy, especially the size and location of air cavities in relation to the beam orientation and field size. For four H&N plans, PTV coverage changed by less than 2%; for the fifth, there was less than 10% difference between the standard and the MC plans. Critical normal tissue DVHs (cord, lung, brainstem) are changed by <10% at the high dose end and mean lung doses are changed by <6%.