Incidence and predictors of radial nerve palsy with the anterolateral brachialis splitting approach to the humeral shaft

Purpose: Fractures of the humeral shaft are common and account for 3%e5% of all orthopedic injuries. This study aims to estimate the incidence of radial nerve palsy and its outcome when the anterior approach is employed and to analyze the predictive factors. Methods: The study was performed in the department of orthopaedics unit of a tertiary care trauma referral center. Patients who underwent surgery for acute fractures and nonunions of humerus shaft through an anterior approach from January 2007 to December 2012 were included. We retrospectively analyzed medical records, including radiographs and discharge summaries, demographic data, surgical procedures prior to our index surgery, AO fracture type and level of fracture or nonunion, experience of the operating surgeon, time of the day when surgery was performed, and radial nerve palsy with its recovery condition. The level of humerus shaft fracture or nonunion was divided into upper third, middle third and lower third. Irrespective of prior surgeries done elsewhere, the first surgery done in our institute through an anterior approach was considered as the index surgery and subsequent surgical exposures were considered as secondary procedures. Results: Of 85 patients included, 19 had preoperative radial nerve palsy. Eleven (16%) patients developed radial nerve palsy after our index procedure. Surgeons who have two or less than two years of surgical experience were 9.2 times more likely to induce radial nerve palsy (p=0.002). Patients who had surgery between 8 p.m. and 8 a.m. were about 8 times more likely to have palsy (p=0.004). The rest risk factor is AO type A fractures, whose incidence of radial nerve palsy was 1.3 times as compared with type B fractures (p=0.338). For all the 11 patients, one was lost to follow-up and the others recovered within 6 months. Conclusion: Contrary to our expectations, secondary procedures and prior multiple surgeries with failed implants and poor soft tissue were not predictive factors of postoperative deficit. From our study, we also conclude that radial nerve recovery can be reasonably expected in all patients with a postoperative palsy following the anterolateral approach.     

The anterolateral approach to the proximal humerus for nonunions and delayed unions

Nonunions of proximal humerus fractures can be disabling as a result of pain, deformity and instability, and are often found in geriatric patients with poor bone quality. There are relatively few studies examining the treatment of nonunions of the proximal third of the humerus and the ideal treatment and surgical approach remains unclear. This case series reports the successful use of the anterolateral acromial approach for treatment of the symptomatic proximal third humerus nonunions in a geriatric group of patients with clear challenges as a result of patient comorbidities and bone quality.     

Extensile posterior approach to the radius

An extensile posterior approach to the radius was studied on 20 forearm anatomic specimen upper limbs. The skin incision followed a line from the lateral epicondyle of the humerus to a point corresponding to the middle of the posterior aspect of the wrist. Dissection was done between the extensor digitorum communis and the extensor carpi radialis brevis. The posterior interosseous nerve was identified, and the muscle fibers of the superficial head of the supinator were divided from distal to proximal to the posterior interosseous nerve, which was dissected and carefully retracted laterally. The muscle fibers of the deep head of the supinator were divided to the bone. An incision was made along the superior and inferior margins of the abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis. A nerve tape was placed around the two muscles, and they were retracted proximally and medially or distally and laterally, as necessary. To expose the distal third of the radius, the obliquely placed muscles, abductor pollicis longus, and extensor pollicis brevis were retracted proximally and medially. Dissection was done between the extensor carpi radialis brevis and extensor pollicis longus. Anatomic study of the posterior interosseous nerve branches was done to understand the vulnerability of such branches seen in this approach.     

The anterolateral acromial approach for fractures of the proximal humerus

Displaced and unstable fractures of the proximal humerus are notoriously difficult to manage. Successful surgical treatment requires finding the appropriate balance between adequate exposure for reduction and rigid fixation and minimizing soft tissue dissection. The anterolateral acromial approach was developed to allow less invasive treatment of proximal humerus fractures. The plane of the avascular anterior deltoid raphe is utilized, and the axillary nerve is identified and protected. Anterior dissection near the critical blood supply is avoided, substantial muscle retraction is minimized, and the lateral plating zone is directly accessed. Over a 4-year period, 52 patients with acute displaced fractures of the proximal humerus were treated with the anterolateral acromial approach and either a locking plate or an intramedullary nail. Twenty-three patients were evaluated clinically at a minimum follow-up of 1 year (average, 28 months) by clinical examination for range of motion and nerve function and a QuickDASH score. There were no axillary nerve deficits postoperatively related to the approach, and the average QuickDASH score was 25.2 (0, best; 100, worst). This approach allowed direct access to the lateral fracture planes for fracture reduction and plate placement or safe nail and interlocking screw placement.     

The extended anterolateral acromial approach allows minimally invasive access to the proximal humerus

Lateral approaches to the proximal humerus have been limited by the position of the axillary nerve. Extensive surgical dissection through a deltopectoral approach may further damage the remaining tenuous blood supply in comminuted fractures. The purpose of our study was to explore a direct anterolateral, less invasive approach to the proximal humerus. Twenty cadaver shoulders were dissected using the extended anterolateral acromial approach through the anterior deltoid raphe. Multiple parameters were measured regarding the axillary nerve. The nerve was easily palpable in all specimens as it exited the quadrilateral space, and predictably was found and protected deep to the raphe, approximately 35 mm from the prominence of the greater tuberosity. Examination of the entire anterior nerve revealed that no branches besides the main motor trunk crossed the deltoid raphe. Subsequently, this approach was used in 16 patients with proximal humerus fractures, none of whom has had complications related to the surgical approach. This minimally invasive surgical approach seems to be safe, and may be useful in treating proximal humerus fractures.     

The anterolateral intertubercular approach to the shoulder with osteotomy of the lesser tubercle of the humerus

Summary The authors propose an original route of approach to the shoulder that allows direct access to this articulation. Thanks to this route, complex fractures of the proximal end of the humerus can be treated by ostosynthesis or prosthesis, and shoulder arthroses, whether centered or not by prosthesis. Two technical methods are used: first, the creation of an anterior digastric trapezio-deltoid muscle flap, and then, in cases of elective prosthetic surgery, osteotomy of the lesser tubercle to open the articulation and provide direct access to the humeral head and the glenoid. The patient is installed in the semiseated position, with the apex of the shoulder projecting widely from the operating table. The incision is anterolateral, in the direction of the fibers of the deltoid and measures 8–10 cm from the anterolateral angle of the acromion (ALAA), which constitutes a convenient surgical landmark. One third of the incision is proximal; the other two-thirds are distal. The trapezio-deltoid digastric muscle flap is created: the deltoid is divided in the direction of its fibers between the anterior and middle bundles, straddling the ALAA. The acromial periosteum is incised vertically. The incision is extended upwards into the trapezius. The digastric muscle flap thus created is reflected forward together with the coracoacromial ligament. An acromioplasty can be performed. This approach by itself allows access to the upper end of the humerus in complex fractures and allows osteosynthesis if called for. In cases of elective prosthetic surgery, and if the rotator cuff is intact, complete access to the articulation is obtained by osteotomy of the lesser tubercle in a plane parallel to its humeral base. This allows reflection of the subscapularis muscle with the tubercular fragment and opening of the articulation. Retropulsion of the elbow and lateral rotation displays the humeral head, which is osteotomized, and in this way access to the glenoid is immediate. The different stages of prosthetic surgery can then be performed. Closure is made most simply by reattachment of the lesser tubercle with a stout transosseous suture. The trapezio-deltoid digastric flap is closed by interrupted sutures without tension.      

Proximal humerus exposure with the inverted-L anterolateral deltoid flip approach,anterolateral deltoid splitting approach,and deltopectoral approach: A comparative cadaveric study

BackgroundReduction of the posterior aspect of proximal humerus fracture, such as far-retracted greater tuberosity or posterior articular head split fracture via a deltopectoral or deltoid splitting approach, is difficult and usually needs extensive dissection. The inverted-L anterolateral deltoid flip approach, which is developed from the deltoid splitting approach, accesses the proximal humerus via lateral deltoid flap lifting. This study compared the area and arc of surgical exposure to the proximal humerus of this proposed approach to existing approaches.MethodsEleven cadaveric specimens were used. Deltopectoral and deltoid splitting approaches were carried out on the right and left shoulder, respectively. Soft tissue was retracted after completion of a surgical approach to expose the proximal humerus, and dot-to-dot marking pins were placed along the border of exposed area. An additional area with a full shoulder rotation was also marked on the deltopectoral side. An inverted-L deltoid flip approach was further carried out on a deltoid splitting side with a posterior extending incision along the acromion process and the deltoid detachment from the acromion process. The additional area of exposure was subsequently marked. All soft tissue around the proximal humerus was taken down, and the glenohumeral joint was disarticulated. Area of exposure and axial images were taken for further processing and measurement.ResultAn average distance of the axillary nerve from the acromion process of the deltoid splitting and the deltopectoral approaches were 49.15 mm and 57.35 mm, respectively (P < 0.05). The average area of exposure of the inverted-L deltoid flip, deltoid-splitting, deltopectoral, and deltopectoral with full rotation approaches were 2729.81mm², 1404.39mm², 1325.41mm², and 2354.78mm², respectively (P < 0.05). Mean arc of exposure lateral to bicipital groove of the inverted-L deltoid flip, deltoid splitting, deltopectoral, and deltopectoral with full rotation approaches were 151.75degrees, 105.02degrees, 61.68°, and 110.64°, respectively (P < 0.05).ConclusionThe inverted-L anterolateral deltoid flip approach provides the most posterior access to the proximal humerus. However, it requires more soft tissue dissection and awareness of tension on the axillary nerve. This approach could be an alternative for displaced posterior head splits or far-retracted greater tuberosity proximal humerus fractures.     

Minimally invasive anterolateral approach to the hip: risk to the superior gluteal nerve

BACKGROUND: Minimally invasive approaches to the hip show promise of less muscle trauma compared to conventional approaches. What is the risk of damage to the superior gluteal nerve? We studied the course of the superior gluteal nerve. METHOD: 20 legs of 11 formalin-fixed Caucasian cadavers were dissected and the course and the distances of the superior gluteal nerve branches from the tip of the greater trochanter were documented. RESULTS: The branch of the gluteal superior nerve leading to the gluteal minimus muscle was 33 (20-50) mm from the tip of the greater trochanter, within a deeper layer. The nearest point of the superior gluteal nerve branches from the tip of the greater trochanter in the posterior region was 19 (10-30) mm, in the middle region 20 (20-30) mm and in the anterior region 20 (10-35) mm. In half of the cases, a distal intermuscular branch between gluteal medius and tensor fasciae latae muscle could be found, mean 27 (10-40) mm caudal and 38 (25-60) mm ventral to the tip of the greater trochanter. This distal branch is considered to create a loop with upper branches of the superior gluteal nerve within the tensor fasciae muscle. INTERPRETATION: The safe zone for the superior gluteal nerve was smaller than previously reported. Use of a minimal direct lateral approach puts the inferior branches within the gluteal medius at risk; however, a minimal anterolateral approach to the hip may compromise branches of the superior gluteal nerve to the tensor fasciae latae muscle.     

Plate fixation of proximal humerus fractures using the minimally invasive anterolateral delta split approach

Objective

Minimally invasive plate osteosynthesis of proximal humerus fractures via an anterolateral delta split approach.

Indications

All proximal humerus fractures classified as 11-A1-3, 11-B1-2 (B3), and 11-C1-2 (C3) according to the AO/OTA system.

Contraindications

Head split and closed irreducible dislocation type fractures, fractures with primary neurovascular impairment, and fractures in children with open growth plate.

Surgical technique

Beach chair position. Anterolateral delta split approach. Maintain rotator cuff insertions with nonabsorbable sutures. Reduction and K-wire retention of the tuberosities to the head fragment. Establish a tunnel along the anterolateral aspect of the proximal humerus with a blunt instrument (e.g., elevatorium). Attachment of the rotator cuff sutures to the corresponding plate holes of a 5-hole PHILOS? plate. Insertion of the plate underneath the deltoid muscle along the prepared tunnel. Preliminary fixation of the plate to the humerus head. Distal alignment of the plate and preliminary fixation. Reduction of the fracture onto the plate with a cortical screw in the shaft segment. Definitive plate fixation in the shaft and head segment. The nonabsorbable sutures are then tightened onto the plate.

Postoperative management

Immediate guided active exercise is encouraged. Weight bearing is increased according to radiological signs of consolidation.

Results

In a prospective evaluation from 2003?C2006, 29?patients (8?male and 21?female) with a mean age of 64?years (16?C91?years) were analyzed. The mean follow-up time was 12?months (6?C32?months). The operation was accomplished in 75?min (55?C155?min) with an image intensifier time of 160?s (48?C807?s). All fractures healed in a timely manner. The median Constant score reached 78?points (28?C93?points). In one case (3%), clinical evidence of a lesion of the anterior branch of the axillary nerve was found.     

Severance of the radial nerve complicating transverse fracture of the mid-shaft of the humerus

A case of radial nerve injury associated with a transverse fracture of the middle third of the humerus is reported. The radial nerve was found to be completely severed at the fracture site. Early exploration of the nerve and internal fixation of the fracture gave a satisfactory result. Received: 12 November 1997     

Internal fixation for coronal shear fracture of the distal end of the humerus by the anterolateral approach

Six patients with a displaced coronal shear fracture of the distal end of the humerus were treated surgically with the anterolateral approach to the elbow, in which the capitulum and trochlea could be exposed widely. All underwent open reduction and internal fixation to reduce anatomically and mobilize the joint at an early stage. The mean duration of follow-up was 40 months (range, 24-54 months). All fractures healed with an acceptable functional result. In no case did we observe collapse of the capitulum or trochlea. We recommend open reduction by the anterolateral approach, which provides good exposure of the fracture sites and allows internal fixation to be accomplished with the use of Herbert screws, resulting in good fixation and compression of the bone fragments.     

Early surgical exploration of radial nerve injury associated with fracture shaft humerus

The series included 36 patients, predominantly male, mean age 30.3 years. The most common cause of injury was motor car accident in 20 patients. Postreduction radial nerve injury occurred in nine cases. Open fracture humerus with radial nerve injury in seven cases. The fractures were situated in the middle or distal third of the humeral shaft. Most were transverse fractures. Twelve patients had surgery on the day of injury and the other 24 at a mean of 8 days later (3-14). Narrow dynamic compression plate was generally used for fixation. Exploration of the radial nerve demonstrated compression at the lateral intermuscular septum in 19 cases, entrapment in the fracture site in nine cases, and loss of its continuity in eight cases. Neurolysis was required in 20 cases, epineurorrhaphy in nine cases, interfascicular nerve grafts in five, and first-intention tendon transfer in two. Results of nerve surgery were assessed with the MRC (Medical Research Council) at a mean follow-up of 8.2 years. Outcome was rated good to excellent in 28 patients, fair in 1, and poor (failure) in 3. First-intention tendon transfers were performed in 2 patients and 2 patients were lost to follow-up. Mean delay to recovery was 7 months after neurolysis and nerve repair and 15 months after nerve grafts. The fracture was united in all cases. The mean time of union was 5 months.     

Iatrogenic radial nerve palsy in the surgical treatment of humerus shaft fracture -anterolateral versus posterior approach: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BackgroundAlthough many studies have investigated iatrogenic radial nerve palsy (RNP) in humerus shaft fracture, there is inconsistent evidence on which approach leads to iatrogenic RNP. Moreover, no meta-analysis has directly compared the anterolateral and posterior approaches regarding iatrogenic RNP.MethodsIn this systematic review and meta-analysis, the MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases were searched systematically for studies published before March 30, 2021. We included studies that (1) assessed the RNP in the surgical treatment of humerus shaft fracture and (2) directly compared the anterolateral and posterior approaches regarding the RNP. We performed synthetic analyses of the incidence of iatrogenic RNP and the recovery rate of iatrogenic RNP in humerus shaft fracture between the anterolateral and posterior approaches.ResultsOur study enrolled nine studies, representing 1303 patients who underwent surgery for humerus shaft fracture. After exclusion of traumatic RNP, iatrogenic RNP was reported in 35 out of 678 patients in the anterolateral approach and in 69 out of 497 patients in the posterior approach. Pooled analysis revealed that the incidence of iatrogenic RNP was significantly higher in the posterior approach than in the anterolateral approach (OR = 2.72; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.70–4.35; P < 0.0001, I² = 0%), but there was no significant difference in the recovery rates of iatrogenic RNP between the two approaches (OR = 1.55; 95% CI, 0.26–9.18; P = 0.63, I² = 0%).ConclusionIn this meta-analysis, the posterior approach showed a higher incidence of iatrogenic RNP than the anterolateral approach in the surgical treatment of humerus shaft fracture. With limited studies, it is difficult to anticipate if any particular approach favors the recovery of iatrogenic RNP.     

肩峰下前外侧小切口入路在肱骨近端骨折治疗中的临床应用

[目的]评价应用肩峰下前外侧小切口入路治疗肱骨近端骨折的方法和临床疗效。[方法]2006年12月-2008年12月运用肩峰下前外侧小切口入路使用锁定钢板治疗42例肱骨近端骨折,其中男25例,女17例,根据AO/OTA分型,A2型5例,A3型11例,B1型7例,B2型12例,C1型3例,C2型4例。经肩前外侧小切口入路,在肱骨大结节顶端下1.5 cm左右,做一3 cm左右横切口,纵行分离三角肌,探及骨折,直视下间接和直接复位。经骨表面肌肉下隧道向骨折远端插入锁定钢板,于钢板远端做纵行切口,远近端用锁定螺钉固定。比较不同时期病例的切口长度、手术时间、出血量、骨折复位及术后1年Neer评分。[结果]42例均在小切口中完成手术,初期和后期病例切口长度分别为(4.5±1.0)cm和(4.0±0.7)cm;手术时间为(60±14.1)min和(45.4±8.7)min;出血量为(100±20.6)ml和(70.2±16.8)ml;Neer评分为(80.2±5.4)分和(86.0±6.0)分,达到影像学的解剖复位分别为6、16例。统计学分析显示以上几项指标不同时期比较,差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。[结论]严格把握适应证和规范的手术技巧,肩峰下前外侧小切口入路可以很好的完成肱骨近端骨折的手术治疗,可以获得满意的临床效果,在大多数的肱骨近端骨折的手术治疗中可以作为首选的手术入路。