终末期肾病患者的钙化异常与心血管疾病

终末期肾病患者较正常人有很高的患病率和病死率，其中心血管疾病占死亡原因的首位，而心血管系统的普遍钙化是高死亡率的重要因素。本文就钙化异常在ESRD患者心血管疾病中的作用作一综述。     

血液透析患者冠状动脉电子束CT扫描钙化积分及其相关因素

目的探讨血液透析患者冠状动脉钙化的相关因素。方法以冠状动脉电子束CT(EBCT)扫描钙化积分确定冠状动脉钙化的程度,回顾性分析心血管疾病的危险因素及钙磷代谢异常等因素对冠状动脉钙化的影响。结果22例维持性血液透析患者进行了EBCT检查,有21例患者(95郾4%)存在不同程度的冠状动脉钙化(EBCT钙化积分>0分),EBCT钙化积分平均1935郾54分(0分～9833分)。EBCT钙化积分≥100分的患者心血管疾病的发病率、血清磷、钙磷乘积和C鄄反应蛋白显著增高而血清白蛋白显著降低(P<0.05)。多元逐步回归分析的结果显示,冠状动脉钙化的影响因素有透析龄和低密度脂蛋白(HDL鄄C)(P<0.05)。结论尿毒症血液透析患者普遍存在冠状动脉钙化,但确切的机制不清楚。冠状动脉钙化(EBCT钙化积分)与高血磷、高钙磷乘积等有关,透析龄、HDL鄄C是冠状动脉钙化的独立影响因素。     

终末期肾脏病血管钙化的机制

终末期肾脏病（end-stage renal disease,ESRD）患者血管钙化十分普遍,并且与心血管疾病发病率和死亡率的增加相关。血管钙化的机制是多方面的,目前并没有完全阐明。深入研究其发生机制将有助于对其防治,减少ESRD患者心血管疾病（CVD）的发生,提高生存率。1血管钙化机制既往人们认为,ESRD患者血管钙化是血钙血磷过饱和导致的被动沉积。     

终末期肾病患者心血管事件与血清胎球蛋白A及冠脉钙化的关系

目的探讨终末期肾病（ESRD）患者心血管事件发生与血清胎球蛋白A及冠脉钙化的关系。方法对38例ESRD初始血液透析患者进行血清胎球蛋白A及相关因素检测，对其中的29例患者进行冠状动脉多层螺旋CT钙化评价研究。所有38例患者随访时间为18个月。22例非ESRD慢性肾脏病（CKDⅡ～Ⅲ期）患者人选对照组。结果38例ESRD初始透析患者在18个月随访期内出现心血管事件30例次，因心血管事件死亡者6例，占15．79％，而非ESRD患者心血管事件仅3例次（P〈0．01）且无一例死亡（P〈0．05）。ESRD血清低胎球蛋白A组心血管事件显著高于ESRD血清高胎球蛋白A组（P〈0．01）。多元逐步回归分析显示，心血管事件与血清胎球蛋白A（P〈0．01）、C反应蛋白（CRP）（P=0．0014）及低密度脂蛋白C（LDL-C）（P=0．008）密切相关。18／29例（62．07％）有冠状动脉钙化。冠状动脉钙化患者心血管事件比无冠状动脉钙化患者显著增多（P〈0．01）。冠脉钙化的ESRD患者血清胎球蛋白A水平较无冠脉钙化的ESRD患者明显下降（P〈0．01）。冠脉钙化与胎球蛋白A下降及高血磷有关（P〈0．01，P〈0．01）。结论ESRD透析患者心血管事件和（或）心血管事件死亡可能与血清胎球蛋白A下降及冠状动脉钙化有关。     

终末期肾病血管钙化机制

终末期肾病(ESRD)患者血管钙化十分普遍,可导致心肌缺血、梗死等严重症状及死亡。深入研究其发生机制将有助于对其防治,减少ESRD患者心血管疾病(CVD)的发生,提高生存率。一、ESRD血管钙化的概述1998年美国ESRD患者的病死率为20%,其中透析患者的CVD病死率较普通人群高10～20倍犤1犦。CVD是ESRD患者的主要死因。Savage等犤2犦发现71%(17/24)患者存在明确的颈动脉和股动脉的钙化斑块。Goodman等犤3犦发现年轻透析患者(20～30岁)中,14(14/16)例存在冠状动脉钙化,其中9例在(20±3)个月后钙化积分平均增长近两倍;而正常人群中,仅3(3/…     

肾移植患者冠状动脉钙化相关因素的探讨

肾移植患者普遍存在冠状动脉钙化。即使是成功的肾移植术后，心血管疾病仍是肾移植患者死亡的主要原因。血管钙化是心血管事件发病和死亡的独立危险因素。冠状动脉钙化积分可作为患者冠心病的监测指标，能预测心血管事件的发生率。     

终末期肾病患者的钙化异常与心血管疾病

终末期肾病患者较正常人有很高的患病率和病死率,其中心血管疾病占死亡原因的首位,而心血管系统的普遍钙化是高死亡率的重要因素。本文就钙化异常在ESRD患者心血管疾病中的作用作一综述。     

尿毒症患者冠状动脉钙化研究进展

心血管疾病是尿毒症患者最主要且最严重的并发症,50％以上的维持性血液透析患者死于心血管疾病。冠状动脉钙化是尿毒症患者发生心血管疾病的重要危险因素,使其发病率升高,产生严重的临床并发症,包括心肌缺血、心绞痛、心肌梗死、心脏瓣膜功能不全、心律失常、血管壁弹性下降等。肾功能不全导致和促进冠状动脉钙化,长久以来,这个问题一直没有得到足够的重视,     

终末期肾脏病患者心血管钙化的研究进展

心血管疾病（CVD）在终末期肾脏病（ESRD）患者中的发病率和病死率均居于首位,约50％的ESRD患者死于CVD及其并发症。近年发表的肾脏疾病早期评估计划（KEEP）显示,慢性肾脏病（CKD）患者发生致死或非致死心血管事件的危险远远超过肾病进展的危险。血管钙化越严重,心血管事件发生率越高。因此,     

慢性肾脏疾病血管钙化加速的研究进展

心血管疾病(cardiovascular disease,CVD)是慢性肾脏疾病(chronic kidney disease,CKD)患者的主要死亡原因[1]。统计数据表明,大约50%终末期肾衰竭(end-stage renal disease,ESRD)患者死于心血管疾病[2]。大量研究发现血管钙化是引起CKD患者发生CVD的一个关键危险因素[3]。血管钙化与     

Epicardial Adipose Tissue and Coronary Artery Calcification in Diabetic and Nondiabetic End-Stage Renal Disease Patients

Background/aims: Atherosclerosis, coronary artery calcification, diabetes mellitus, inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and left ventricular hypertrophy are the most commonly encountered risk factors in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients. Epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) is the true visceral fat depot of the heart. The relationship between coronary artery disease (CAD) and EAT was shown in healthy subjects and patients with high risk of CAD. To date, there is not enough data about EAT in diabetic and nondiabetic ESRD patients. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the EAT and coronary artery calcification score (CACS) in diabetic and nondiabetic ESRD patients and healthy subjects. Methods: Sixty ESRD patients (17 diabetic, 43 nondiabetic ESRD patients) and 20 healthy subjects were enrolled in the study. EAT and CACS were performed by a 64-slice multidetector computed tomography scanner. Results: There were no differences in age, gender, body mass index, predialysis systolic and diastolic blood pressure levels, biochemical parameters including serum low-density lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and C-reactive protein between healthy subjects, diabetic, and nondiabetic ESRD patients. Total CACSs and EAT measurements were significantly higher in diabetic ESRD patients when compared with nondiabetic ESRD patients and healthy subjects. There was statistically significant relationship between EAT and CACS in ESRD patients (p < 0.0001, r = 0.48). Conclusion: In conclusion, we found a significant increase in terms of EAT and CACS in diabetic ESRD patients when compared with nondiabetic ESRD patients and healthy subjects.     

Close association of Chlamydia pneumoniae IgA seropositivity by ELISA with the presence of coronary artery stenosis in haemodialysis patients.

BACKGROUND: Traditional risk factors of cardiovascular disease do not fully explain the accelerated atherosclerosis present in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). The goal of this study was to identify the association of clinical and laboratory factors including seropositivity for Chlamydia pneumoniae determined by a specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with the presence of coronary artery disease identified by coronary angiography in ESRD patients. METHODS: We prospectively enrolled 161 consecutive ESRD patients undergoing haemodialysis for >6 months (106 men, 55 women; mean age 63.1+/-10.2 years; mean dialysis duration 91.3+/-90.1 months). All patients underwent coronary angiography within 1 week after blood sampling. The associations of coronary artery disease with clinical parameters including C. pneumoniae IgA and IgG seropositivity were analysed using multiple logistic regression models. RESULTS: Coronary stenosis >50% was found in 102 of 161 haemodialysis patients (63.4%). Of the 102 patients, 75.5% were asymptomatic. Seropositivity for C. pneumoniae IgA was found in patients with coronary stenosis (77 out of 102, 75.5%) more frequently (P<0.001) than in patients without coronary stenosis (10 out of 59, 16.9%). Seropositivity for C. pneumoniae IgA but not IgG was strongly associated with the presence of coronary stenosis in multiple logistic regression analysis (odds ratio, 18.440; 95% confidence interval, 7.500-45.337), independently of the Framingham coronary risk factors, factors peculiar to ESRD or serum C-reactive protein levels. CONCLUSIONS: C. pneumoniae IgA seropositivity determined by ELISA is an independent laboratory factor indicating the presence of coronary artery stenosis in ESRD patients undergoing maintenance haemodialysis.     

Assessment of vascular calcification in ESRD patients using spiral CT.

BACKGROUND: Dialysis patients have increased vascular calcification of the coronary arteries and aorta by electron beam CT scan. The purpose of the present study was to utilize an alternative machine, spiral CT, to assess calcification in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients. METHODS: Two groups of patients with ESRD were evaluated: group 1, those receiving a renal transplant (n=38); and group 2, those remaining on dialysis (n=33). All patients underwent quad-slice spiral CT with retrospective gating to evaluate coronary artery and aorta calcification scores. Both area (Agatston method) and volume calculations were utilized, with retrospective gating in all but 16 subjects. Laboratory tests, medications and clinical characteristics were analysed. RESULTS: Using spiral CT, the intra-reader variability for coronary artery calcification (after correction for very low scores) was 0.9% mean / 0% median using the area (Agatston method) and 2.9% mean / 0% median using volume calculations. Group 1 patients were younger, more likely to be Caucasian and on peritoneal dialysis, had lower serum calcium and higher C-reactive protein levels than group 2. In patients without vs those with coronary artery calcification, only longer duration of dialysis (34+/-64 vs 55+/-50 months, P=0.004; r=0.39, P=0.005) and increasing age (39+/-13 vs 54+/-10 years, P<0.001; r=0.29, P=0.039) were associated, whereas only increasing age was associated with aorta calcification. CONCLUSION: In ESRD patients, the factors correlating with coronary calcification were duration of dialysis and advancing age, whereas only age correlated with aorta calcification. Spiral CT offers an alternative technique for the assessment of these changes.     

Effects of excess calcium load on the cardiovascular system measured with electron beam tomography in end-stage renal disease.

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in dialysis patients and current research indicates that it might be linked to high serum phosphorus levels and calcium-phosphorus product. The severe osteopathy known to exist in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients is often coupled with an inability of bone to handle excess calcium loads. This might predispose to overflow and deposition of calcium and phosphate crystals in various soft tissues and in particular the cardiovascular apparatus. Atherosclerosis is a slow process that expands in the context of the arterial intimal layer and it is for the most part associated with extracellular calcification. Electron beam tomography (EBT) is a radiological technique utilized to non-invasively visualize this silent marker of atherosclerosis: vascular calcification. Several investigations conducted in non-ESRD patients have conclusively demonstrated that coronary calcification indicates a high risk for cardiac events. As EBT allows precise estimates of the extent of vascular and valvular calcification, it might become an important clinical tool in ESRD patients to assess the effect of excess calcium and phosphate load in soft tissues, estimate the cardiovascular risk of events and gauge the effectiveness of therapy.     

Non-invasive assessments of cardiovascular disease in patients with renal failure

Vascular calcification is common in patients with chronic renal failure, and it may contribute to the very high mortality rate from cardiovascular causes in the end-stage renal disease population. Vascular calcification in chronic renal failure can arise from the calcification of the intimal layer of arteries as a result of atherosclerosis or from medial wall calcification due largely to alterations in mineral metabolism. Although several reports indicate that coronary artery calcification, as measured by electron-beam computed tomography, is quite common in patients with end-stage renal disease who are treated with dialysis, the clinical significance of these findings remain uncertain. In the general population, electron-beam computed tomography evidence of coronary calcification serves as a useful index of atherosclerotic burden and has value as a predictor of adverse coronary events. The relationship between coronary artery calcification and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease has not been adequately studied, however, in patients with end-stage renal disease, and calcification scores in this population may reflect both intimal and medial wall calcification. Assessments using coronary angiography are needed to determine the diagnostic value of electron-beam computed tomography as a predictor of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic renal failure. Nevertheless, electron-beam computed tomography makes it possible to detect the presence and monitor the progression of coronary calcification in those undergoing long-term dialysis. The technique may provide important information about the impact of new therapeutic strategies aimed at reducing the risks of vascular calcification in those with chronic renal failure.     

Dyslipidemia and progression of cardiovascular calcification (CVC) in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD)

Dyslipidemia and progression of cardiovascular calcification (CVC) in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Cardiovascular calcification (CVC) is commonly encountered both in the general population as well as in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). The etiology of CVC in patients with ESRD is multifactorial. Despite that, current debate remains narrowly focused on the role of calcium loading from calcium-based phosphate binders (CBPB) in the pathogenesis and progression of CVC. Yet, the alleged link between these binders and CVC has not been substantiated in well-designed controlled trials. In contrast, the purported role of sevelamer, a non-calcium-based phosphate binder, in slowing the progression of CVC in dialysis patients has attracted widespread attention. The beneficial effect of sevelamer on progression of calcification was thought to be due to lower calcium loading during its use. However, an alternative and possibly more likely mechanism involves sevelamer-induced lowering of LDL cholesterol. In this context, previous studies in individuals with normal renal function have documented amelioration of coronary artery calcification (CAC) with reduction of LDL-cholesterol by treatment with HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins). Given that CAC is a well-accepted marker of atherosclerosis, and that high plasma cholesterol concentration is one of the main risk factors for atherosclerosis, then it is not unreasonable to suspect that CAC may be halted or even reversed by lowering of LDL cholesterol level with statin therapy. Unfortunately, the effect of lowering the LDL-cholesterol level on CAC has not been studied in patients with ESRD. Therefore, conclusions about this important topic should await the results of well-designed clinical studies that control for all factors potentially implicated in the CVC burden of patients with ESRD. In this review, I will discuss the role of various potential mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of CVC in patients with ESRD, and emphasize the role of dyslipidemia and its treatment in this important clinical entity.     

Cardiovascular calcification in patients with end-stage renal disease: a century-old phenomenon

The mortality risk from cardiovascular disease is increased in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). This is due to both traditional and dialysis-specific factors. Recently, a number of the dialysis-specific risk factors have been implicated in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular calcification. These include: hyperphosphatemia, high calcium-phosphate (Ca x P) product, elevated parathyroid hormone levels, duration of dialysis, and treatment with calcium-containing phosphate binders and vitamin D analogs. The recent availability of electron beam computed tomography (EBCT) has triggered increased awareness of the occurrence of cardiovascular calcification in ESRD patients. Given the development of transient hypercalcemia with calcium-containing binders, a link between calcium load from use of calcium-containing phosphate binders and development coronary calcification has been proposed. However, a causal relationship between use of these agents and cardiovascular calcification has not been established. Moreover, this phenomenon had been recognized over a century ago, long before these phosphate binders became available. Although its pathogenesis is likely to be multifactorial, available data strongly implicate elevated serum phosphorus as the primary culprit. Furthermore, the risk of calcification may be aggravated by vitamin D therapy, particularly in patients with severe secondary hyperparathyroidism. Therefore, achieving vigorous control of serum phosphorus, Ca x P product and parathyroid hormone level might decrease cardiovascular calcification and improve survival of patients on maintenance hemodialysis. Since calcium acetate is the most cost-effective phosphate binder available, we recommend that it should remain the first line treatment of hyperphosphatemia in patients with ESRD.     

Evaluation and treatment of coronary artery disease in patients with end-stage renal disease

Evaluation and treatment of coronary artery disease in patients with end-stage renal disease. Patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) are at increased risk of death from coronary artery disease (CAD). The metabolic milieu that results from renal dysfunction appears to accelerate the atherosclerotic process by decades in patients with ESRD. The extremely high prevalence of atherosclerosis in patients with ESRD mandates risk factor identification and treatment. Traditionally, CAD in this patient population has been treated conservatively. Analysis of large databases has highlighted the scope and complexity of this problem; nonetheless, there is a paucity of randomized, controlled trials of CAD in patients with ESRD. In this paper the following issues related to evaluation and treatment of patients with chronic kidney disease are addressed: (1) optimal CAD risk management; (2) evaluation for CAD in patients with ESRD, including the identification of coronary calcification; (3) treatment of CAD with medical therapy and revascularization; (4) relative merits of percutaneous coronary intervention versus bypass surgery. In general, an aggressive approach to medical management of CAD is warranted, even in the setting of subclinical CAD. A low threshold for diagnostic testing should be employed in patients with ESRD. When significant CAD is identified, ESRD patients appear to benefit more from revascularization compared to conservative medical management. Thus, if clinically reasonable, patients with ESRD and CAD should be managed aggressively to improve survival and reduce the incidence of future cardiac events.     

Cardiovascular disease in patients with end-stage renal disease on hemodialysis in a developing country

Cardiovascular disease is the main cause of death among patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). The present study was undertaken to identify the main cardiovascular diseases and their risk factors in 160 patients with ESRD on hemodialysis (HD) in Brazil. Their mean age was 47 ± 39 years. The main risk factors for cardiovascular diseases were arterial hypertension (89.4%), dyslipidemia (78.3%), low high-density lipoprotein levels (84.2%) and low physical activity (64.1%). Family history of coronary insufficiency and high low-density lipoprotein levels were significantly associated with coronary artery disease (P = 0.005 and P = 0.029, respectively). Sedentary life style, diabetes mellitus, secondary hyperparathyroidism and hyperglycemia also showed a significant association with the underlying vascular disease (P = 0.017, P = 0.039, P = 0.037 and P = 0.030, respectively). Hypercalcemia, hypertension and black race were factors significantly associated with left ventricular systolic dysfunction (P = 0.01, P = 0.0013 and P = 0.024, respectively). Our study shows that the most prevalent cardiovascular diseases in patients with ESRD were left ventricular hypertrophy, atherosclerotic disease, valvular disease and coronary artery disease. Hypertension and dyslipidemia were the common risk factors associated with cardiovascular diseases. The present study was undertaken to identify the main cardiovascular diseases and their risk factors in 160 patients with ESRD on HD in a single center in Brazil.