A tentative model for developing strategic and clinical nursing quality indicators: postoperative pain management

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the usefulness of a tentative model, based on important aspects of surgical nursing care, for designing strategic and clinical quality indicators. Objective postoperative pain management was chosen for the model because it is a priority area in surgical nursing care. Items within a questionnaire were designed by using the tentative model as a base and by means of a literature review. The questionnaire, directed to clinical nurses (n = 233), was compiled to establish the validity and the usefulness of the indicators. Fourteen items were assessed as essential for achieving high quality outcomes in postoperative pain management (11 as realistic to carry out, and 13 as possible for nurses to influence) with mean scores > or = 4 (on a 5-point scale). The conclusion reached was that the tentative model combined with a literature search was found to be effective for designing items that might be useful as strategic and clinical indicators of quality in postoperative pain management.     

Clinical validation of FLACC: preverbal patient pain scale

PURPOSE: To test the validity of the Faces, Legs, Activity, Cry and Consolability (FLACC) pain assessment tool by measuring changes in scores in response to analgesics. METHOD: METHODS: Pediatric nurses used the FLACC scale to assess pain in 147 children under 3 years of age who were hospitalized in the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU), post-anesthesia care unit (PACU), surgical/trauma unit, hematology/oncology unit, or infant unit. FLACC is an observational tool for quantifying pain behaviors. Facial expression, leg movement, activity, cry, and consolability are each scored 0-2, for a total FLACC score of 0-10. The FLACC measurements were done pre-analgesia, at predicted onset of analgesia, and at predicted peak analgesia. FINDINGS: Pre-analgesia FLACC scores were significantly higher than post-analgesic scores and significantly higher for patients who received opioids than patients who received non-opioids. Peak analgesia FLACC scores across analgesia groups were not significantly different and reflect effective pain relief for patients regardless of analgesic choice. CONCLUSIONS: The FLACC pain assessment tool is appropriate for preverbal children in pain from surgery, trauma, cancer, or other disease processes. The results support pediatric nurses' clinical judgment to determine analgesic choice rather than providing distinct FLACC scores to guide analgesic selection.     

连续髂筋膜阻滞和硬膜外阻滞下行全髋置换后镇痛的比较

背景：硬膜外持续镇痛曾被认为是下肢术后镇痛的金标准,其效果确切,全身不良反应较少,临床上普遍采用。但此法有低血压及尿潴留等不良反应,且患者在术后常规需应用低分子肝素抗凝,有增加硬膜外血肿的可能性,限制了硬膜外镇痛的临床使用。目前超声引导下连续髂筋膜腔隙阻滞技术的相关研究报道甚少。 目的：评价连续髂筋膜间隙阻滞和连续硬膜外阻滞两种不同镇痛方法对全髋关节置换后镇痛效果和关节功能恢复的影响。 方法：将60例择期行全髋关节置换患者分为2组：连续髂筋膜间隙阻滞组和连续硬膜外镇痛组（n=30）。两组患者在全身麻醉诱导前均接受预注量,连续髂筋膜间隙阻滞组经髂筋膜间隙注入0.25%罗哌卡因30 mL,连续硬膜外阻滞组经硬膜外导管注入0.20%罗哌卡因10 mL,均留置导管。待镇痛效果明确后,全麻插管。术毕两组分别经髂筋膜间隙、硬膜外连接镇痛泵持续给药,未使用术后自控镇痛单次给药。若疼痛难以忍受时,视其疼痛程度,予补救镇痛（帕瑞昔布20-40 mg/次）。记录目测类比评分、帕瑞昔布补救剂量、麻醉并发症、髋关节Harris评分、下床时间和住院时间。 结果与结论：目测类比评分、额外追加的镇痛药量、Harris 评分、住院日两组无明显差别。但是下床时间连续髂筋膜间隙阻滞组早于连续硬膜外阻滞组,而且连续髂筋膜间隙阻滞组并发症明显低于连续硬膜外阻滞组。提示全髋关节置换后,两种镇痛方式均可提供满意的术后镇痛效果,髋关节功能可得到良好的恢复;但连续髂筋膜间隙阻滞并发症少且有利于患者早期下床活动,对于髋关节置换后镇痛是更好的选择。     

股神经和硬膜外自控镇痛在全膝关节置换后的作用

背景：全膝关节置换后疼痛是阻碍早期锻炼的主要问题,置换后镇痛有多种方法可供选择,每种镇痛方法均有自身的优缺点,越来越多的学者趋向于神经阻滞和自控镇痛。目的：比较经股神经自控镇痛和硬膜外自控镇痛在单侧全膝关节置换后镇痛及促进功能恢复效果的差异。方法：选择ASAⅠ～Ⅲ级单侧膝关节置换患者42例,随机分为股神经自控镇痛组和硬膜外自控镇痛组,每组21例,均在连续硬膜外麻醉下实施置换,置换后连接镇痛泵。置换后4,8,12,24和48h,采用目测类比法进行疼痛评分,采用Bromage评分法进行运动阻滞评分;分别记录患者在置换后1,2,3d、1周、1个月患膝关节主动活动的关节活动度以及不良反应发生情况等。结果与结论：全膝关节置换后两组目测类比评分差异无显著性意义,运动阻滞Bromage评分股神经自控镇痛组低于硬膜外自控镇痛组,而且股神经自控镇痛组不良反应明显低于硬膜外自控镇痛组,早期关节活动度也好于硬膜外自控镇痛组。提示股神经自控镇痛在全膝关节置换后的镇痛效果是安全有效的,有利于置换后功能恢复。     

Epidural Analgesia: A Viable Option for Pain Control

Epidural analgesia is an important intervention for both acute and chronic pain management. It has been in use since the early 1900s, but the technique using local application of opiate analgesics has only been in use since the late 1970s (Moulin & Coyle, 1986). Today, many patients receive epidural analgesia for postoperative pain control, and its use for acute or chronic pain management in a hospital, pain clinic, or home setting also continues to increase. Epidural analgesia is also being utilized to manage acute pain in the pediatric client. Epidural analgesia requires meticulous techniques, beginning with placement of the epidural catheter and continuing with administration of medications and nursing management of the catheter. Nursing assessment and development of protocols along with preoperative and postoperative patient and family teaching are vital components of the total plan of care. The nurse practitioner (NP) or other health care provider must be cognizant of safety considerations, whether in the hospital environment, pain clinic, or home setting.     

Anesthesia-based pain services improve the quality of postoperative pain management

Anesthesia-based pain services are facilitating improvements in the quality of care of surgical patients by developing and directing institution-wide perioperative analgesia programs that include interdisciplinary collaborations. However, the impact of anesthesia-based pain services has not been evaluated in a systematic fashion. This prospective multisite study (n = 23 hospitals) utilized a standardized approach to evaluate the quality of pain care provided to patients who were and who were not cared for by an anesthesia-based pain service. A total of 5837 patients were evaluated using a standardized survey that consisted of a medical record review and a patient interview. The data were collected as part of the hospitals' quality improvement activities. Forty-nine percent of the patients were cared for by an anesthesia-based pain service. Patients who received pain service care reported significantly lower pain intensity scores; had lower levels of pain in the postoperative period; had a lower incidence of pruritus, sedation, and nausea; and experienced significantly less pain than expected. In addition, these patients were more likely to receive patient education about postoperative pain management; were more satisfied with their postoperative pain management; and were discharged sooner from the hospital. The findings from this study demonstrate that the care provided by anesthesia-based pain services has a significant impact on patient outcomes.     

食管癌术后两种镇痛模式的临床观察与护理

目的:探讨舒芬太尼硬膜外与静脉持续镇痛用于食管癌三切口手术的镇痛效果及护理特点。方法:将50例美国麻醉医师协会(ASA)Ⅰ～Ⅱ级行食管癌三切口手术的病人随机分为硬膜外镇痛组(E组,n=28例)和静脉镇痛组(Ⅰ组,n=22例)。记录术后6,12,24,48 h两组病人的静止和运动镇痛评分、副作用以及镇痛满意度整体评分,持续监测病人的血压、心率、血氧饱和度、呼吸频率。结果:术后两组病人的静止镇痛评分比较无明显差异,但运动镇痛评分在术后12,24 h时点疼痛评分比较E组优于I组(P0.05);且术后镇痛满意度整体评分E组优于Ⅰ组(P0.05);两组病人术后镇痛的副作用及不良反应发生率均较低,组间比较无明显差异(P0.05);两组病人术后生命体征平稳,仅在术后6,12 h时点,I组的呼吸频率高于E组(P0.05),有显著性差异。结论:舒芬太尼硬膜外镇痛用于食管癌术后镇痛,效果明显优于舒芬太尼持续静脉镇痛。护理上应做好针对性的护理干预和管理,以提高食管癌手术病人术后的生活质量。     

胃癌根治术后两种镇痛泵的应用效果和护理

[目的]探讨胃癌根治术后两种镇痛泵的应用效果。[方法]将80例行胃癌根治术的胃癌病人采用随机数字表法分为对照组和观察组各40例,对照组病人术后使用硬膜外导管镇痛泵镇痛（PCEA）,观察组病人术后使用静脉镇痛泵镇痛（PCIA）,均给予相应的临床观察和护理,采用视觉模拟评分法（VAS）评定疼痛程度,比较两组病人的术后疼痛情况、术后并发症情况、护理满意度情况。[结果]观察组病人术后疼痛程度明显轻于对照组、术后 VAS 评分及并发症发生率均明显低于对照组、护理满意度明显高于对照组,经比较差异均有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。[结论]PCEA 与 PCIA均是胃癌根治术的有效镇痛方法,可明显减轻病人的术后疼痛,PCIA的镇痛效果更好,术后并发症少且安全性高。     

Nurse Practitioner-Administered Chloroprocaine in Children with Postoperative Pain

Background: Pain is a complex physical and emotional experience. Therefore, assessment of acute pain requires self-report when possible, observations of emotional and behavioral responses and changes in vital signs. Peripheral nerve and epidural catheters often provide postoperative analgesia in children. Administration of chloroprocaine (a short acting local anesthetic) via a peripheral nerve or epidural catheter allows for a comparison of pain scores, observations of emotional and behavioral responses and changes in vital signs to determine catheter function. Aims: The aims of this study are to describe the use chloroprocaine injections for testing catheters; patient response; and how changes to pain management are guided by the patient response. Methods: This study describes the use of chloroprocaine injections to manage pain and assess the function of peripheral nerve or epidural catheters in a pediatric population. We examined 128 surgical patients, (0-25 years old), who received chloroprocaine injections for testing peripheral nerve or epidural catheters. Patient outcomes included: blood pressure, respiratory rate, heart rate and pain intensity scores. Results: There were no significant adverse events. The injection guided intervention by determining the function of regional analgesia in the majority (98.5%) of patients. Discussion: Chloroprocaine injections appear to be useful to evaluate functionality of peripheral nerve and epidural catheters after surgery in a pediatric population.     

The relationship between method of pain management during labor and birth outcomes

This study examined the relationship between method of pain management during labor and birth outcomes. A retrospective comparative chart review of 233 primiparous deliveries was conducted and group assignment was based on method of pain control (nonnarcotic, narcotic, or epidural). Epidural analgesia or anesthesia was associated with increased rates of instrumental and cesarean delivery. Augmentation of labor using a synthetic oxytocin was reported in more charts than expected, and the length of the second stage of labor was longer in those who received epidural analgesia or anesthesia. Apgar scores for those who received early epidural analgesia or anesthesia were lower than for those who received late or no epidural analgesia or anesthesia, although Apgar scores were satisfactory across all groups. Between-groups differences were unrelated to time of epidural placement or maternal temperature. Findings are relevant for maternal child nurses who serve as a resource for families wishing to make informed decisions about pain management in labor.     

Postoperative Schmerztherapie auf allgemeinen Krankenpflegestationen

There have been major advances in knowledge and efficient techniques for pain relief have been developed during recent years. Nevertheless, many patients on surgical wards still suffer from severe pain following surgery or trauma. Therefore, in the University hospital of Kiel (Germany) an anaesthesiology-based acute pain service (APS) was established in 1985 to improve this situation. ORGANIZATION OF THE APS: The anaesthesiologist in training, who is in overall charge of the recovery unit, serves as an APS for surgical wards and is supervised by a consultant. The anaesthesiologists on duty are on call after regular working hours. The activities of the APS are as follows: induction of adequate postoperative analgesia in the recovery unit for all patients and selection of patients for further special analgesic treatment; clinical rounds including all patients receiving regional analgesia or patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) every morning and throughout the day if necessary; additional consultations on postoperative pain management for other patients on request; assessment and documentation of the clinical status of each patient, the quality of analgesia and side effects; written orders for further treatment (Fig. 1); continuing consultations and informal education for ward nurses, physiotherapists and surgical staff, and formal medical training in postoperative pain management for ward sisters/ charge nurses ACTIVITY OF THE APS: A total of 1947 patients were treated on normal wards from 1985 to 1992. Epidural analgesia was performed using a standard protocol with bupivacaine 0.175-0.25% continuously with top-ups if needed. Since the introduction of an APS, complications of epidural analgesia such as hypotension and insufficient analgesia due to dislocation or other technical complications, have declined significantly in recent years (Fig. 3). Epidural opioids were used in only 46 selected cases on surgical wards. Nevertheless, there were two cases of marked respiratory depression. PCA was performed according to a standard protocol with tramadol or piritramide without background infusion. The loading dose was titrated in the recovery unit. The median duration of PCA was 4 days (range 1-23 days), and the median dose of piritramide was 45 mg/day (range 3-226 mg). There were two cases of somnolence and respiratory depression. CONCLUSIONS: Since the majority of patients used patient-controlled or epidural analgesia for more than 48 h (Fig. 2), it is emphasized again that these techniques should not be restricted to high-dependency areas such as ICU or recovery units. The introduction of an APS is an adequate approach towards more efficient and safer pain management on surgical wards. This requires standard protocols, standard monitoring and trained ward nurses.     

病人自控硬膜外镇痛与静脉镇痛用于全髋置换术的比较

目的比较老年病人全髋置换术术后自控硬膜外镇痛（PCEA）与自控静脉镇痛（PCIA）的效果和不良反应。方法选择48例美国麻醉学会分级（ASA）I-Ⅲ级,择期硬膜外麻醉下行全髋置换术的老年病人,术后分别行PCEA（E组）和PCIA（I组）。PCEA药物用1.25mg／ml的罗哌卡因,镇痛泵参数设置为基础量3ml／h、自控给药量（PCA量）5ml、锁定时间30min。PCIA药物用10μg／ml的芬太尼,泵参数为基础量2ml／h、PCA量3ml、锁定时间15min。观察术后48h的镇痛效果和不良反应情况。结果两组术后视觉模拟评分法（VAS）均低于3,术毕初始12h内PCEA提供更低的VAS（P〈0.05）,24-48h两组VAS差异无显著性。术后PCEA病人的低血压、下肢麻木及硬膜外导管脱落的发生率显著高于I组（P〈0.05）。恶心、呕吐、谵妄、皮肤瘙瘁等发生率两组相似。结论老年病人全髋置换术术后病人自控硬膜外镇痛的效果优于自控静脉镇痛,但镇痛管理较为困难。     

新斯的明硬外镇痛的实验与临床研究

目的 :探讨硬外新斯的明的镇痛效应。方法 :本研究分成两个部分。第一部分研究不同剂量的新斯的明在不同人体实验疼痛模型中的镇痛效应。第二部分研究不同剂量的新斯的明对手术后痛的镇痛效果。结果 :第一部分 :0 .5mg和 1.0mg新斯的明对上肢及 0 .5mg新斯的明对下肢没有镇痛作用 ;1.0mg新斯的明对下肢有镇痛作用 ,但对不同性质疼痛的反应作用不同。第二部分 :0 .5mg和 1.0mg新斯的明均降低了术后痛VAS评分 (P <0 .0 1)。硬外新斯的明有明显的副作用 ,包括心率降低 ,胃肠运动亢进。结论 :硬外新斯的明可产生与剂量相关的镇痛作用及副作用     

全膝关节置换后的多模式镇痛

背景：围全膝关节置换期疼痛处理一直是临床所关注的重点问题,寻找安全有效的镇痛方式,成为关节外科医生的重要任务之一。目的：比较硬膜外镇痛和股神经阻滞镇痛在患者全膝关节置换后镇痛、康复的效果,探索相关的多模式联合镇痛方案。方法：随机选取行单侧膝关节置换的患者40例,按照镇痛方案的不同分为硬膜外镇痛组和股神经阻滞镇痛组,每组20例。患者在连续硬膜外麻醉下进行单侧膝关节置换并进行术前宣教和塞来昔布给药。置换后硬膜外镇痛组通过留置导管连接0．2％罗哌卡因、2mg／L芬太尼止痛泵镇痛;股神经阻滞镇痛组通过股神经阻滞导管间断注射0．2％罗哌卡因镇痛。观察全膝关节置换后患者6,12,24h和2—7d每天的疼痛程度,以及2-7d每天的膝关节活动度。结果与结论：全膝关节置换后2-7d,2组患者每天的静息痛和活动痛的目测类比评分均呈下降的趋势,股神经阻滞镇痛组患者的疼痛程度小于硬膜外镇痛组患者。置换后2-7d,股神经阻滞镇痛组和硬膜外镇痛组患者膝关节活动度都逐渐升高,股神经阻滞镇痛组患者膝关节活动度大于硬膜外镇痛组。结果说明虽然硬膜外镇痛和股神经阻滞镇痛都能缓解全膝关节置换术后疼痛,但股神经阻滞镇痛在全膝关节置换后近期的运动镇痛效果优于硬膜外镇痛,能加快患者关节功能的康复,且多模式联合镇痛方案能有效控制疼痛。     

Field testing, refinement, and psychometric evaluation of a new measure of quality of care for assisted living

Field test results are reported for the Observable Indicators of Nursing Home Care Quality Instrument-Assisted Living Version, an instrument designed to measure the quality of care in assisted living facilities after a brief 30-minute walk-through. The OIQ-AL was tested in 207 assisted-living facilities in two states using classical test theory, generalizability theory, and exploratory factor analysis. The 34-item scale has a coherent six-factor structure that conceptually describes the multidimensional concept of care quality in assisted living. The six factors can be logically clustered into process (Homelike and Caring, 21 items) and structure (Access and Choice; Lighting; Plants and Pets; Outdoor Spaces) subscales and for a total quality score. Classical test theory results indicate most subscales and the total quality score from the OIQ-AL have acceptable interrater, test-retest, and strong internal consistency reliabilities. Generalizability theory analyses reveal that dependability of scores from the instrument are strong, particularly by including a second observer who conducts a site visit and independently completes an instrument, or by a single observer conducting two site visits and completing instruments during each visit. Scoring guidelines based on the total sample of observations (N = 358) help guide those who want to use the measure to interpret both subscale and total scores. Content validity was supported by two expert panels of people experienced in the assisted-living field, and a content validity index calculated for the first version of the scale is high (3.43 on a four-point scale). The OIQ-AL gives reliable and valid scores for researchers, and may be useful for consumers, providers, and others interested in measuring quality of care in assisted-living facilities.     

Epidural analgesia for postoperative orthopaedic pain

It is well known that traditional postoperative pain management techniques often fail to relieve pain in nearly 50% of postoperative patients. The etiology of poor pain management is rooted in the fears of addiction, overmedication, and the time associated with obtaining controlled substances and administering them to patients. Patients being treated with neuroaxial analgesia (epidural and intrathecal drug administration) are appearing more frequently on orthopaedic nursing units. It is therefore imperative that nurses are familiar with the care of patients with epidural catheters. This article discusses the relevant anatomy, physiology, pharmacology, contraindications, and complications associated with neuroaxial analgesia, with special emphasis placed on the orthopaedic patient.