The retention of calcium, iron, phosphorus, and magnesium during pregnancy: the adequacy of prenatal diets with and without supplementation.

Vitamin and mineral supplementation is often prescribed by physicians to meet the additional nutrient requirements of pregnancy. In order to partially ascertain the effectiveness of these prenatal supplements, the retention of calcium and iron was determined in pregnant women consuming supplemented or unsupplemented self-selected diets. The retention of phosphorus and magnesium, minerals not included in the prenatal supplements, was also determined. Seven-day metabolic balance experiments spaced periodically throughout the pregnancy were conducted on 10 healthy pregnant white women. The retention of calcium by the supplemented group was comparable to that of the unsupplemented group, while the retention of iron was more dependent on the magnitude of the iron intake than on its source. Although no supplement contained phosphate, the intake of phosphorus met the recommended allowances for this mineral. Significantly related to the intake of dietary calcium, the adequate phosphorus intakes reflected diets providing adequate calcium. The mean magnesium intake was only 60% of the recently established recommended dietary allowance. Although the calcium and iron salts provided by the prenatal supplements were well utilized, the intakes of phosphorus and magnesium indicate that the reliance on the effectiveness of mineral supplements should not lessen the emphasis by the physician on the importance of a good prenatal diet.     

Coffee consumption as a factor in iron deficiency anemia among pregnant women and their infants in Costa Rica

The influence of coffee consumption on hematological and trace element status was studied in two groups of pregnant, low-income Costa Rican women: coffee drinkers (greater than or equal to 450 mL/d, n = 22) and coffee nondrinkers (0 mL/d, n = 26). Groups had similar income, education, prenatal care, age, parity, weight, height, pregnancy weight gain, prenatal iron supplementation, energy, protein, Fe, and vitamin C intake and infant sex and gestational age. Maternal hemoglobin (Hb) and hematocrit (Hct) at 8 mo gestation, cord blood Hb and Hct, infant birth weight and Hb and Hct at 1 mo of age, and breast-milk Fe concentration were significantly lower in the coffee group than in the noncoffee group. The association of coffee with infant Hb and Hct was independent of maternal Fe status and birth weight. These results are consistent with our previously reported data in rats and indicate that maternal coffee intake may contribute to maternal and infant anemia.     

The Influence of Nutritional Supplementation for Iron Deficiency Anemia on Pregnancies Associated with SARS-CoV-2 Infection

Anemia is a very common occurrence during pregnancy, with important variations during each trimester. Anemia was also considered as a risk factor for severity and negative outcomes in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. As the COVID-19 pandemic poses a significant threat for pregnant women in terms of infection risk and access to care, we developed a study to determine the impact of nutritional supplementation for iron deficiency anemia in correlation with the status of SARS-CoV-2 infection. In a case-control design, we identified 446 pregnancies that matched our inclusion criteria from the hospital database. The cases and controls were stratified by SARS-CoV-2 infection history to observe the association between exposure and outcomes in both the mother and the newborn. A total of 95 pregnant women were diagnosed with COVID-19, having a significantly higher proportion of iron deficiency anemia. Low birth weight, prematurity, and lower APGAR scores were statistically more often occurring in the COVID-19 group. Birth weight showed a wide variation by nutritional supplementation during pregnancy. A daily combination of iron and folate was the optimal choice to normalize the weight at birth. The complete blood count and laboratory studies for iron deficiency showed significantly decreased levels in association with SARS-CoV-2 exposure. Puerperal infection, emergency c-section, and small for gestational age were strongly associated with anemia in patients with COVID-19. It is imperative to screen for iron and folate deficiency in pregnancies at risk for complications, and it is recommended to supplement the nutritional intake of these two to promote the normal development and growth of the newborn and avoid multiple complications during pregnancy in the COVID-19 pandemic setting.     

Multiple micronutrients in pregnancy and lactation: an overview

This overview of multiple micronutrients during pregnancy and lactation emphasizes 2 relatively neglected issues. The first is that maternal micronutrient status in the periconceptional period, and throughout pregnancy and lactation, should be viewed as a continuum; too often these 3 stages are treated and discussed separately from both a scientific and a public health perspective. Iron and vitamin B-12 are included as examples to stress how status at conception affects maternal, fetal, and infant status and health until the child is weaned. The second issue is that while most attention has been focused on a few micronutrients, for example iron and folate as discussed elsewhere in this Supplement, multiple micronutrient deficiencies occur simultaneously when diets are poor. Some of these deserve more attention as causes of poor pregnancy outcome, including other B vitamin deficiencies that result in homocysteinemia, antioxidants, vitamin D, and iodine. In lactation, maternal status or intake of the B vitamins (except folate), vitamin A, selenium and iodine strongly affect the amount of these nutrients secreted in breast milk. This can result in the infant consuming substantially less than the recommended amounts and further depleting stores that were low at birth. While the optimal mode of meeting recommended micronutrient intakes is an adequate diet, in some situations supplementation is also important. Unfortunately, information is lacking on the optimal formulation of micronutrient supplements for pregnant women, and the need to continue these supplements during lactation is not recognized in many situations where maternal and infant health could benefit.     

Iron status and pregnancy in a northern Canadian population: relationship to diet and iron supplementation.

To determine the extent of iron deficiency, the prognostic value of prenatal ferritin levels and the desirability of prenatal iron supplementation in the western Canadian arctic, dietary iron intake was determined in 171 women and ferritin levels determined in 121 women during pregnancy, 79 at delivery and 77 postnatally, as well as in 65 of their infants at birth and 74 postnatally. Iron deficiency (ferritin < 15 ng/ml) was present in 34% of women during the first two trimesters, 25% (20/79) at delivery and in 51.7% (15/29) of mothers and 31% (9/29) of infants beyond four months after delivery. Maternal follow-up ferritin levels correlated poorly with dietary iron intake but well with prenatal ferritin levels, which appeared to be good predictors of the effectiveness of supplementation. Mean infant follow-up ferritin levels were 105.6 +/- 115.2 ng/ml with, and 46.7 +/- 63.5 without maternal prenatal supplementation (p = 0.03); maternal, 45.5 +/- 40.9 ng/ml with, and 12.8 +/- 9.2 without (p < 0.001). Measurement of prenatal ferritin levels to determine risk of iron deficiency and routine prenatal iron supplementation are recommended.     

Iron status during pregnancy: setting the stage for mother and infant

Supplementation with iron is generally recommended during pregnancy to meet the iron needs of both mother and fetus. When detected early in pregnancy, iron deficiency anemia (IDA) is associated with a > 2-fold increase in the risk of preterm delivery. Maternal anemia when diagnosed before midpregnancy is also associated with an increased risk of preterm birth. Results of recent randomized clinical trials in the United States and in Nepal that involved early supplementation with iron showed some reduction in risk of low birth weight or preterm low birth weight, but not preterm delivery. During the 3rd trimester, maternal anemia usually is not associated with increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes and may be an indicator of an expanded maternal plasma volume. High levels of hemoglobin, hematocrit, and ferritin are associated with an increased risk of fetal growth restriction, preterm delivery, and preeclampsia. While iron supplementation increases maternal iron status and stores, factors that underlie adverse pregnancy outcome are considered to result in this association, not iron supplements. On the other hand, iron supplements and increased iron stores have recently been linked to maternal complications (eg, gestational diabetes) and increased oxidative stress during pregnancy. Consequently, while iron supplementation may improve pregnancy outcome when the mother is iron deficient it is also possible that prophylactic supplementation may increase risk when the mother does not have iron deficiency or IDA. Anemia and IDA are not synonymous, even among low-income minority women in their reproductive years.     

Randomized, placebo-controlled, calcium supplementation study in pregnant Gambian women: effects on breast-milk calcium concentrations and infant birth weight, growth, and bone mineral accretion in the first year of life

BACKGROUND: Growth and bone mineral accretion in Gambian infants are poorer than those in Western populations. The calcium intake of Gambian women is low, typically 300-400 mg Ca/d, and they have low breast-milk calcium concentrations, which result in low calcium intakes for their breastfed infants. A low maternal calcium supply in pregnancy may limit fetal mineral accretion and breast-milk calcium concentrations and thereby affect infant growth and bone mineral accretion. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the effects of calcium supplementation in Gambian women during pregnancy on breast-milk calcium concentrations and infant birth weight, growth, and bone mineral accretion. DESIGN: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled supplementation study was conducted in 125 Gambian women who received 1500 mg Ca/d (as calcium carbonate) or placebo from 20 wk of gestation until delivery. Infant birth weight and gestational age were recorded. Breast milk was collected, and infant anthropometric and bone measurements were performed at 2, 13, and 52 wk after delivery. Infant bone mineral status was assessed by using single-photon absorptiometry of the radius and whole-body dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. RESULTS: Compliance with the supplement was high. No significant differences were detected between the groups in breast-milk calcium concentration, infant birth weight, or growth or bone mineral status during the first year of life. A slower rate of increase in infant whole-body bone mineral content and bone area was found in the supplement group than in the placebo group (group x time interaction: P = 0.03 and 0.02, respectively). CONCLUSION: Calcium supplementation of pregnant Gambian women had no significant benefit for breast-milk calcium concentrations or infant birth weight, growth, or bone mineral status in the first year of life.     

Community Mobilization and Social Marketing to Promote Weekly Iron-Folic Acid Supplementation in Women of Reproductive Age in Vietnam: Impact on Anemia and Iron Status

The community mobilization and social marketing program promoting a preventive approach of weekly iron-folic acid supplementation in women of reproductive age improved iron status of non-pregnant women in Vietnam. Three to six months of weekly pre-pregnancy supplementation and regular weekly intake of supplements during pregnancy allowed women to achieve good iron and hemoglobin status during the two first trimesters of pregnancy. In the third trimester, iron deficiency and anemia were notably present but low birth weight prevalence was low. This demonstrates the effectiveness and safety of the preventive approach as implemented here to prevent and control iron deficiency and anemia in women of reproductive age before and during pregnancy.     

New nutrient intake recommendations are needed for childbearing

British recommendations (DRVs and RNIs) include hardly any increments for pregnancy. British recommendations for protein are likely to cause unsatisfactory birthweight. What is the normal nutrient intake in pregnancy of healthy women? What evidence is there of special requirements for folate, iron, magnesium or iodine? New recommendations for nutrient intakes in pregnancy should be the responsibility of the Food Standards Agency and a survey of the diets of pregnant women is needed.     

Assessment of vitamins and minerals intake with supplements in pregnant women

The aim of the work was to assess the application of diet supplements in pregnant women, as well as the intake of vitamins and minerals with pharmaceuticals. Sixty women in age 19 - 40 years coming from the Mazowsze district were examined. The information about applying supplements was obtained using questionnaire method. The intake of vitamin and mineral supplements before and during pregnancy was declared on the level of 55% and 98.3% respectively. The average intake of vitamin D (157%), folic acid (128%), vitamin B2 (125%), vitamin C (121%), iron (120%), iodine and zinc (113%) from supplements was above recommended values. The average intake of vitamin B1, B12 and B6 from supplements was about 95-105% of RDA. The lowest average consumption was noted for vitamin A (60%) as well as calcium and magnesium (10-12% of recommended value). Pregnant women who have lived in country consumed less vitamins and minerals from supplements, however differences were statistically significant in case vitamin A, E, magnesium, cooper, iodine and manganese.     

Current questions concerning nutrition during pregnancy

Maternal nutrition during pregnancy is known to influence the health state of the offspring during the whole lifetime. The paper discusses in details the sequelae of the imbalanced energy intake and the role of fats. Out of the micronutrients the effects of retinol, vitamins of the B-group, calcium, iron, iodine and magnesium are discussed and attention is called to the action of the high sodium intake. Finally, the principles of the nutritional recommendations in pregnancy are presented.     

Pregnancy weight gain in adolescents and young adults

We examined whether adolescents required greater prenatal weight gains than nonadolescents to deliver equal weight babies following a low-risk pregnancy. Maternal characteristics and monthly weight gains were collected from medical records obtained from a private health maintenance organization (n = 423). Maternal weight gain, gestational age, parity, and cigarette use during pregnancy were significant predictors of infant birth weight in our regression models. Subjects were nonsmokers with a gestational age greater than 37 weeks and a parity equal to 0 who entered prenatal care during the first trimester of pregnancy. Mean total weight gains for the adolescents (16.2 +/- 4.8 kg; n = 51) and adults (15.2 +/- 5.4 kg; n = 65), and infant birth weights were similar. Mean infant birth weight was 3473 +/- 394 g for the adolescents and 3339 +/- 453 g for the young adults, whereas the optimal weight range for newborns is about 3500-3999 g. Modifiable risks are the important predictors of infant birth weight, and adolescents do not appear to require a greater weight gain than young adults to deliver similar weight babies.     

Micronutrients in Pregnancy in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Pregnancy is one of the more important periods in life when increased micronutrients, and macronutrients are most needed by the body; both for the health and well-being of the mother and for the growing foetus and newborn child. This brief review aims to identify the micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) likely to be deficient in women of reproductive age in Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMIC), especially during pregnancy, and the impact of such deficiencies. A global prevalence of some two billion people at risk of micronutrient deficiencies, and multiple micronutrient deficiencies of many pregnant women in LMIC underline the urgency to establishing the optimal recommendations, including for delivery. It has long been recognized that adequate iron is important for best reproductive outcomes, including gestational cognitive development. Similarly, iodine and calcium have been recognized for their roles in development of the foetus/neonate. Less clear effects of deficiencies of zinc, copper, magnesium and selenium have been reported. Folate sufficiency periconceptionally is recognized both by the practice of providing folic acid in antenatal iron/folic acid supplementation and by increasing numbers of countries fortifying flours with folic acid. Other vitamins likely to be important include vitamins B12, D and A with the water-soluble vitamins generally less likely to be a problem. Epigenetic influences and the likely influence of micronutrient deficiencies on foetal origins of adult chronic diseases are currently being clarified. Micronutrients may have other more subtle, unrecognized effects. The necessity for improved diets and health and sanitation are consistently recommended, although these are not always available to many of the world’s pregnant women. Consequently, supplementation programmes, fortification of staples and condiments, and nutrition and health support need to be scaled-up, supported by social and cultural measures. Because of the life-long influences on reproductive outcomes, including inter-generational ones, both clinical and public health measures need to ensure adequate micronutrient intakes during pregnancy, but also during adolescence, the first few years of life, and during lactation. Many antenatal programmes are not currently achieving this. We aim to address the need for micronutrients during pregnancy, the importance of micronutrient deficiencies during gestation and before, and propose the scaling-up of clinical and public health approaches that achieve healthier pregnancies and improved pregnancy outcomes.     

2017年成都市孕早中期妇女铁补充剂摄入量对妊娠期糖尿病的影响

目的探讨成都地区孕早中期妇女铁补充剂摄入量对妊娠期糖尿病(gestational diabetes mellitus,GDM)的影响。方法采用前瞻性研究,于2017年2-4月通过立意抽样方法选取成都市某妇幼保健机构产前门诊807名孕早期妇女为研究对象。通过问卷调查于孕早期收集孕妇基本信息,于孕早、中期收集孕妇铁补充剂摄入剂量及频率,计算铁补充剂平均日摄入量,采用连续3天24小时膳食回顾法收集孕妇孕早、中期食物摄入量。根据WHO推荐孕期补铁60 mg/d为分界点,<60 mg/d为低水平组,≥60 mg/d为高水平组。于孕24~28周进行口服葡萄糖糖耐量试验,根据《中国妊娠合并糖尿病诊治指南(2014)》诊断GDM。采用多因素非条件Logistic回归方法分析孕早、中期妇女铁补充剂平均摄入量和摄入水平对GDM的影响。结果最终纳入有效样本739例,年龄(28.22±3.75)岁。孕早、中期铁补充剂使用率分别为5.0%和67.9%,铁补充剂摄入量≥60 mg/d比例分别为3.8%和47.1%。调整年龄、孕次、产次、孕前体质指数、膳食铁摄入量、膳食能量摄入量等混杂因素后,孕中期铁补充剂平均摄入量与GDM发生风险呈正相关(OR=1.059,95%CI 1.016~1.104);孕中期铁补充剂摄入高水平组(≥60 mg/d)GDM发生风险是孕中期铁补充剂摄入低水平组(<60 mg/d)的1.406倍(95%CI 1.019~1.939)。未发现孕早期铁补充剂摄入量与GDM发生有关。结论孕期铁补充剂使用可能会增加GDM发生风险,孕妇铁补充剂适宜摄入量值得探讨。     

Benefits of Docosahexaenoic Acid, Folic Acid, Vitamin D and Iodine on Foetal and Infant Brain Development and Function Following Maternal Supplementation during Pregnancy and Lactation

Scientific literature is increasingly reporting on dietary deficiencies in many populations of some nutrients critical for foetal and infant brain development and function. Purpose: To highlight the potential benefits of maternal supplementation with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and other important complimentary nutrients, including vitamin D, folic acid and iodine during pregnancy and/or breast feeding for foetal and/or infant brain development and/or function. Methods: English language systematic reviews, meta-analyses, randomised controlled trials, cohort studies, cross-sectional and case-control studies were obtained through searches on MEDLINE and the Cochrane Register of Controlled Trials from January 2000 through to February 2012 and reference lists of retrieved articles. Reports were selected if they included benefits and harms of maternal supplementation of DHA, vitamin D, folic acid or iodine supplementation during pregnancy and/or lactation. Results: Maternal DHA intake during pregnancy and/or lactation can prolong high risk pregnancies, increase birth weight, head circumference and birth length, and can enhance visual acuity, hand and eye co-ordination, attention, problem solving and information processing. Vitamin D helps maintain pregnancy and promotes normal skeletal and brain development. Folic acid is necessary for normal foetal spine, brain and skull development. Iodine is essential for thyroid hormone production necessary for normal brain and nervous system development during gestation that impacts childhood function. Conclusion: Maternal supplementation within recommended safe intakes in populations with dietary deficiencies may prevent many brain and central nervous system malfunctions and even enhance brain development and function in their offspring.     

Iron supplementation during pregnancy, anemia, and birth weight: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND: The need for prophylactic iron during pregnancy is uncertain. OBJECTIVE: We tested the hypothesis that administration of a daily iron supplement from enrollment to 28 wk of gestation to initially iron-replete, nonanemic pregnant women would reduce the prevalence of anemia at 28 wk and increase birth weight. DESIGN: Between June 1995 and September 1998, 513 low-income pregnant women in Cleveland were enrolled in the study before 20 wk of gestation. Of these, 275 had a hemoglobin concentration >/= 110 g/L and a ferritin concentration >/= 20 micro g/L and were randomly assigned to receive a monthly supply of capsules containing either 30 mg Fe as ferrous sulfate or placebo until 28 wk of gestation. At 28 and 38 wk of gestation, women with a ferritin concentration of 12 to < 20 micro g/L or < 12 micro g/L received 30 and 60 mg Fe/d, respectively, regardless of initial assignment. Almost all the women received some supplemental iron during pregnancy. We obtained infant birth weight and gestational age at delivery for 117 and 96 of the 146 and 129 women randomly assigned to receive iron and placebo, respectively. RESULTS: Compared with placebo, iron supplementation from enrollment to 28 wk of gestation did not significantly affect the overall prevalence of anemia or the incidence of preterm births but led to a significantly higher mean (+/- SD) birth weight (206 +/- 565 g; P = 0.010), a significantly lower incidence of low-birth-weight infants (4% compared with 17%; P = 0.003), and a significantly lower incidence of preterm low-birth-weight infants (3% compared with 10%; P = 0.017). CONCLUSION: Prenatal prophylactic iron supplementation deserves further examination as a measure to improve birth weight and potentially reduce health care costs.     

Early Folic Acid Supplement Initiation and Risk of Adverse Early Childhood Respiratory Health: A Population-based Study

Objectives Folate plays a vital role in biologic functions yet women often do not meet the recommended dietary intake in pregnancy. It has been suggested that high folic acid intake during pregnancy may increase the risk of respiratory diseases in offspring. However, findings from observational studies in human populations are inconclusive. Methods In this population-based study, we collected self-reported folic acid and prenatal vitamin supplement use during pregnancy 3–6 months postpartum from mothers in Los Angeles whose children were born in 2003. Supplement initiation was based on whichever supplement, either folic acid or prenatal supplements, the women initiated first. In a 2006 follow-up survey, approximately 50% of women were re-contacted to gather information on the child’s respiratory health, including symptoms and diagnoses, at approximately 3.5 years of age. Results Overall, timing of folic acid supplement initiation was not associated with wheeze or lower respiratory tract infection, even after accounting for preterm births and censoring at follow-up. However, children born to mothers with a history of atopy (hay fever, eczema or asthma) who initiate folic acid supplements in late pregnancy, compared to first trimester initiators, have 1.67 (95% CI 1.12, 2.49) times the risk of wheeze in the first 3 years of life and 1.88 (95% CI 1.05, 3.34) times the risk of wheeze in the past year. No association was found among children of non-atopic mothers. Conclusions These findings suggest that early folic acid or prenatal supplementation among atopic women may be important to prevent wheeze among offspring.     

Prenatal exposure to bisphenol A and child wheeze from birth to 3 years of age

Background: Bisphenol A (BPA), an endocrine-disrupting chemical that is routinely detected in > 90% of Americans, promotes experimental asthma in mice. The association of prenatal BPA exposure and wheeze has not been evaluated in humans.Objective: We examined the relationship between prenatal BPA exposure and wheeze in early childhood.Methods: We measured BPA concentrations in serial maternal urine samples from a prospective birth cohort of 398 mother–infant pairs and assessed parent-reported child wheeze every 6 months for 3 years. We used generalized estimating equations with a logit link to evaluate the association of prenatal urinary BPA concentration with the dichotomous outcome wheeze (wheeze over the previous 6 months).Results: Data were available for 365 children; BPA was detected in 99% of maternal urine samples during pregnancy. In multivariable analysis, a one-unit increase in log-transformed creatinine-standardized mean prenatal urinary BPA concentration was not significantly associated with child wheeze from birth to 3 years of age, but there was an interaction of BPA concentration with time (p = 0.003). Mean prenatal BPA above versus below the median was positively associated with wheeze at 6 months of age [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 2.3; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.3, 4.1] but not at 3 years (AOR = 0.6; 95% CI: 0.3, 1.1). In secondary analyses evaluating associations of each prenatal BPA concentration separately, urinary BPA concentrations measured at 16 weeks gestation were associated with wheeze (AOR = 1.2; 95% CI: 1.0, 1.5), but BPA concentrations at 26 weeks of gestation or at birth were not.Conclusions: Mean prenatal BPA was associated with increased odds of wheeze in early life, and the effect diminished over time. Evaluating exposure at each prenatal time point demonstrated an association between wheeze from 6 months to 3 years and log-transformed BPA concentration at 16 weeks gestation only.     

孕期营养评价及干预措施对妊娠结局的影响

目的:了解厦门市孕妇孕期营养状况,分析日常饮食对体内营养素的影响,评价营养干预措施的效果,为制定合理的孕期膳食计划提供科学依据。方法:2006年1月～2008年8月间,在厦门市妇幼保健院营养科接受营养咨询的孕妇571例,分别在孕20周前、孕26～27周、孕35～36周进行3次前3天的膳食调查,同时检测体内营养素水平,探讨日常饮食与体内营养素变化的关系,评价孕期营养。随机选取同一时期在本院分娩、孕20周前正常者,但未接受孕期营养指导的产妇254例,作为对照组。追踪随访两组孕妇的妊娠结局,评价营养干预措施的效果。结果:①两组孕妇在日常膳食中,脂肪摄入占总能量的比例均达营养素推荐摄入量(RNI)的要求,88.3%的孕妇摄入过高,超过了RNI的要求。孕中、后期,孕妇钙、铁的摄入不足,尤其是孕末期,钙、铁摄入量达到RNI的孕妇分别占29.8%及8.5%。孕中、晚期,锌、维生素C、维生素A、维生素B1、维生素B2摄入量达到RNI的孕妇分别占40.9%、36.2%、44.8%、22.7%、45.9%。②孕期同时增加补充铁及维生素C,能较好地延缓血清铁蛋白浓度下降的趋势(P0.05),增加维生素B2的摄入是孕期胆固醇水平升高的保护因素(P0.05),而脂肪摄入过高,则是危险因素(P0.05)。③孕期能量摄入水平控制在1900～2600kCal/d,蛋白质摄入水平控制在70～115g/d时,新生儿出生体重异常的发生比例最低。④孕期接受过营养知识健康教育和指导的孕妇,其孕期营养相关并发症发生率、剖宫产率、新生儿出生体重异常率均低于对照组(P0.05)。结论:厦门市孕妇膳食结构有待于进一步改进,建议孕妇注重蛋白质、各类矿物质和维生素补充,减少脂肪摄入,能量与蛋白质摄入应在适宜范围内。同时大力提倡孕期营养咨询与指导,要加大孕期营养知识健康教育力度,普及营养知识,提高孕妇营养知识水平,改善妊娠结局。