Stability of alexithymia and its relationships with the 'big five' factors, temperament, character, and attachment style

BACKGROUND: Controversy still exists concerning the stability of the alexithymia construct. Also, although alexithymia has been found to be related in a theoretically meaningful way to other personality constructs such as the 'Big Five' factors, few studies have investigated its relationship with influential constructs such as temperament and character, and attachment security. METHODS: Two hundred twenty-one undergraduate and graduate students were administered the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20), the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), the Zung Depression Scale (ZDS), the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI-125), the Big Five Questionnaire (BFQ), and the Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR) questionnaire. After 1 month, 115 participants completed again the TAS-20, STAI, and ZDS. RESULTS: Alexithymia was only moderately correlated with depression and anxiety. Both the absolute and relative stability of TAS-20 total and subscale scores was high, and a negligible portion of their change over time was accounted for by changes in depression or anxiety. In separate multiple regression models including also gender, age, depression and anxiety, TAS-20 total and subscale scores were correlated with low energy/extraversion, low emotional stability, openness, low friendliness/agreeableness; harm avoidance, low self-directedness, low cooperativeness, low reward dependence; attachment-related avoidance and anxiety. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings lend support for both absolute and relative stability of alexithymia, corroborate an association between alexithymia and insecure attachment, and contribute to a coherent placing of alexithymia in the broader theoretical network of personality constructs.     

Different personalities between depression and anxiety

We examined the different personality dimensions between depression and anxiety with Cloninger's seven-factor model of temperament and character. The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI), which measures four temperament and three character dimensions of Cloninger's personality theory (125-item short version), the Self-rating Depression Scale (SDS), and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) were administered to 223 Japanese students. With hierarchical regression analysis, the SDS score was predicted by scores of Harm-Avoidance, Self-Directedness, and Self-Transcendence, even after controlling for the STAI score. The STAI score was predicted by scores of Self-Directedness and Cooperativeness, even after controlling for the SDS score. More importance should be attached to these dimensions of character because they might contribute to both depression and anxiety. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Clin Psychol 54: 1043–1051, 1998.     

Early maladaptive schemas,temperament and character traits in clinically depressed and previously depressed subjects

The Young Schema Questionnaire (YSQ) and the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) have been suggested as vulnerability markers for depression. One‐ hundred forty clinically depressed subjects(CD), previously depressed subjects(PD) and never depressed (ND) controls completed the YSQ, the TCI and the Beck Depression Inventory. Results showed that CD and PD differed significantly on early maladaptive schemas, temperament and character traits compared with ND. In accordance with previous research, higher levels of harm avoidance and lower levels of self‐directedness were found in CD and in recovered PD. Moreover, CD and PD showed substantial variability in the scores on the YSQ and the TCI when controlling for concurrent depression severity. In multiple regression analyses, YSQ domain scales of disconnection, impaired autonomy, restricted self‐expression and impaired limits emerged as significant predictors of depression severity. Likewise, as concerns TCI higher order scales, high harm avoidance, low self‐directedness and high persistence emerged as significant predictors of depression severity. Harm avoidance was positively related to several early maladaptive schemas (EMSs), whereas self‐directedness was negatively related to a majority of the EMSs. Our findings indicate the presence of maladaptive personality characteristics in CD and PD. Longitudinal studies are needed to establish their causal role in relation to first‐onset and recurrent depression. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Key Practitioner Message: ? Early maladaptive schemas, high harm [correction made here after initial online publication] avoidance and low self‐directedness may be a part of vulnerability to depression. ? The finding of these personality characteristics in subjects recovered from depression indicates malfunctioning to some degree. ? Addressing such characteristics in therapy should be considered in order to prevent and treat depression from its relapsing and recurring course.     

Early temperament and attachment as predictors of the Five Factor Model of personality

To increase our understanding of developmental aspects of the Five Factor Model (FFM) of personality, prospective relations from infant temperament and attachment security to the ‘Big Five’ dimensions of personality in middle childhood were studied in a sample of 85 Swedish middle class children. Combined maternal and paternal temperament ratings at infant age 20 months and Strange Situation attachment to mother at 15 months were used as predictors of mother and teacher ratings of personality at child age 8-9 years. Also the A1-B2 versus B3-C2 classification grouping was used as a measure of infant negative emotionality. The results showed extraversion/surgency to be the dimension most clearly related to infancy data; it was predicted by both temperament and attachment security. Attachment security also predicted neuroticism and openness. The emotionality shown in the Strange Situation was not related to the ‘Big Five’. The results were discussed in terms of approach and anxiety systems and internal working models as foundations for the FFM personality traits.     

Lack of association of a single‐nucleotide polymorphism of the μ‐opioid receptor gene with anxiety‐related traits: Results from a cross‐sectional study of adults and a longitudinal study of children

There is evidence from animal experiments that the μ‐ and δ‐opioid receptors may play a role in anxiety and depression. It might therefore be expected that functional polymorphisms of these genes in humans are associated with anxiety and depression. We investigated a single‐nucleotide polymorphism (Asn40Asp) of the μ‐opioid receptor gene (OPRM1). This association was investigated in two samples: 1) a cross‐sectional survey of 867 community‐living adults aged 18–79 years who were assessed for anxiety and depression symptoms and related personality traits; and 2) a longitudinal study of childhood temperament in which 660 children were followed from infancy to the mid‐teens and assessed for anxiety‐related temperament and behavior problems. The data did not support a role for the Asn40Asp polymorphism in anxiety and depression, despite adequate statistical power to detect small effects. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

大学生社交焦虑、依恋与心理健康的关系研究

目的探讨大学生社交焦虑、依恋水平和心理健康的关系,建立三者关系的结构方程。方法采用社交焦虑量表(SAS-A)、亲密关系体验问卷(ECR)和一般健康问卷(GHQ-12),对广州地区325名大学生进行问卷调查,并进行统计分析。结果1社交焦虑的新环境社交回避、一般环境社交回避维度与依恋回避呈显著正相关关系;社交焦虑的3个维度与依恋焦虑都呈显著正相关关系;2大学生依恋通过影响社交焦虑,进而影响到个体的心理健康水平。社交焦虑起着部分中介的作用。结论大学生社交焦虑与依恋水平相关显著,社交焦虑在依恋水平和心理健康之间起部分中介作用。     

Attachment and symptoms of psychopathology: early maladaptive schemas as a cognitive link?

This study investigated whether early maladaptive schemas can explain the relation between attachment anxiety and avoidance dimensions and symptoms of psychopathology. For this purpose, 289 Flemish, Dutch‐speaking, late adolescents participated on a questionnaire study. Using a non‐parametric re‐sampling approach, we investigated whether the association between attachment and psychopathology was mediated by early maladaptive schemas. Results indicate that the association between attachment anxiety and psychopathology is fully mediated by cognitions regarding rejection and disconnection and other‐directedness. The association between attachment avoidance and psychopathology is partly mediated by cognitions regarding rejection and disconnection. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Key Practitioner Message:

• Our findings suggest that cognitive therapy might be useful in the treatment of attachment‐related psychopathology.
• Our findings suggest that therapists should be wary for attachment‐related relapse.
• Especially the cognitive schemas regarding expectations to be rejected or disconnected mediated the association between attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance dimensions and psychopathology.

     

An Affect-Based,Hierarchical Model of Temperament and Its Relations With Internalizing Symptomatology

Examined the tripartite model of personality, which emphasizes negative affectivity (NA) and positive affectivity (PA) as central organizing dimensions of personality that are useful for discriminating psychopathologies. Conceptualizations of youth temperament also include second-order, organizing factors of negative emotionality/ neuroticism and positive emotionality/extroversion that may differentially predict psychopathologies. A community sample of 290 10- to 17-year-old youth completed the Emotionality, Activity, and Sociability Temperament Survey (EAS), Positive and Negative Affectivity Schedule, and measures of symptoms of anxiety and depression. Factor analysis replicated the 5-factor structure of the EAS and revealed 2 independent second-order factors, negative temperament (NT) and positive temperament (PT). NT and PT demonstrated convergent and discriminant relations with NA and PA. Consistent with the tripartite model, NT was associated with both anxiety and depression scores, but PT was related to depression scores only.     

Lack of association between polymorphisms of the dopamine receptor D4 and dopamine transporter genes and personality traits in a Korean population

Human personality traits have a considerable genetic component. Cloninger et al. were the first to postulate that certain personality traits, such as novelty seeking, are related to the dopamine neurotransmitter system. In this study, we investigated the associations between dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) exon III and dopamine transporter (DAT1) polymorphisms and personality traits. The DRD4 and DAT1 gene polymorphisms were genotyped in 214 healthy Korean subjects, whose personality traits were assessed with the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). There were no significant differences between scores of TCI temperament dimensions (novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, and persistence) and DRD4 gene polymorphism. The DAT1 gene polymorphisms also showed no significant association with any of the temperament subscales of the TCI. These data suggest that DRD4 and DAT1 gene polymorphism may not associated with personality traits in a Korean population.     

情侣依恋与个体抑郁的关系:冲突的中介作用

目的考察大学生情侣依恋、冲突与抑郁之间的关系。方法采用亲密关系经历量表、冲突量表和抑郁量表,运用相关分析以及回归分析。结果①依恋回避与依恋焦虑是相互独立的维度(r=0.05,P>0.05);②依恋回避对个体抑郁没有预测作用(Beta=0.11,P>0.05);③冲突在依恋焦虑与抑郁间起着部分中介效应作用(△R2=0.04,P<0.01)。结论依恋焦虑既可直接对抑郁有显著的预测作用,也可通过冲突对抑郁有预测作用。     

Attachment,affective temperament,and personality disorders: A study of their relationships in psychiatric outpatients

Background

As the result of extensive translational and cross-disciplinary research, attachment theory is now a construct with significant neuropsychiatric traction. The correlation of attachment with other influential conceptual models (i.e. temperament and personality) is therefore of interest. Consequently, we explored how two attachment dimensions (attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance) correlated with measures of temperament and personality in 357 psychiatric outpatients.

Methods

We performed a retrospective review of four questionnaires (the Experiences in Close Relationship scale (ECR-R), Temperament and Character inventory (TCI), Temperament Evaluation of the Memphis, Pisa, Paris and San Diego questionnaire (TEMPS-A), and Personality Self-Portrait Questionnaire (PSQ)). Frequency measures and correlations were examined, as was the predictive value of attachment security for a personality disorder (PD).

Results

Significant, robust correlations were found between attachment anxiety and (1) several negative affective temperaments (dysthymic and cyclothymic); (2) several indices of personality pathology (low self-directedness (TCI), DSM-IV paranoid, borderline, histrionic, avoidant and dependent personality traits). Attachment avoidance had fewer large correlations. In an exploratory model, the negative predictive value of attachment security for a PD was 86%.

Limitations

Subjects were a relatively homogeneous subset of ambulatory psychiatric outpatients. PD diagnoses were via self-report.

Conclusions

Clinically, these findings highlight the significant overlap between attachment, affective temperament, and personality and support the value of attachment as a screen for PDs. More broadly, given our growing understanding of the neurobiology of attachment (i.e. links with the oxytocin system), these results raise interesting questions about underlying biological systems and psychiatric treatment.     

大学生父母教养方式与成人依恋的关系研究

目的探讨大学生父母教养方式与成人依恋的关系。方法随机抽取120名大学生,采用父母养育方式评价量表（EMBU）和亲密关系经历量表（ECR—C）进行调查。结果①）父母教养方式与成人依恋回避维度相关不显著;父母教养方式中父亲过度保护,母亲情感温暖、理解和母亲惩罚、严厉与成人依恋焦虑维度显著相关;②父母教养方式因子中父亲过度保护对成人依恋的焦虑有正向预测作用,母亲情感温暖、理解对焦虑有负向预测作用。结论父母教养方式对于女的成人依恋有较小影响。     

50例手术患者的成人依恋类型分析

目的：探讨生病住院必须进行手术时患者的依恋方式的特点。方法：采用两种常用的成人依恋量表——关系问卷（RQ）和亲密关系经历量表（ECR），对住院接受非肠道手术的50名患者进行依恋类型的测量。结果：接受手术患者的依恋类型的分布为：安全型18人（占36％），轻视型20人（占40％），矛盾型6人（12％），害怕型6人（12％）；ECR中的依恋焦虑与用RQ测量的自我模型的得分有显著的负相关（P〈0．01），而依恋回避则与RQ测量的自我模型和他人模型的得分都存在显著的负相关（P〈0．05）；在依恋焦虑维度上，安全型与轻视型没有差异，但两者都与矛盾型和害怕型有显著差异。而在依恋回避维度上，害怕型得分显著高于其他类型，矛盾型次之，安全型和轻视型最低。结论：接受手术的患者的依恋类型与大学生的样本不同，通过两种量表测量的患者的依恋方式有较强的相关。     

Regional brain cerebral glucose metabolism and temperament: a positron emission tomography study

Personality, and in particular temperament, is thought to have a biological basis. In the present study, the relationships between regional brain glucose metabolism and temperament have been investigated. Regional brain glucose metabolism was measured using [18F] fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in 31 healthy subjects. Temperament was assessed using the Temperament and Character Inventory. Temperament dimensions were observed to be significantly correlated with specific brain regions. In particular, novelty seeking was significantly correlated with the superior temporal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and the precuneus, which have been reported to be related with impulsiveness, while reward dependence was significantly correlated with the caudate head, which has been shown to be associated with reward processing. The various aspects of temperament may have biological bases in the specific brain regions. The accumulation of results from studies of this kind should provide further evidence connecting personality traits with their biological bases.     

Dependency and self‐criticism in post‐partum depression and anxiety: a case control study

This study investigates the role of self‐criticism and dependency in inpatient post‐partum depressed women (n = 55) and non‐depressed controls (n = 37) as well as the relationship between both personality dimensions and severity of depression and anxiety. As expected, mothers with post‐partum depression showed not only increased levels of depression but also anxiety compared with non‐depressed mothers. Furthermore, they had significantly higher levels of self‐criticism, but not of dependency. In the post‐partum depressed mothers, both personality dimensions were positively associated with severity of depression. However, in non‐depressed mothers, self‐criticism was positively associated with depression, while there was an inverse relationship between dependency and severity of depression. In both samples, self‐criticism, but not dependency, was related to state anxiety. The cross‐sectional nature of this study limits the ability to draw causal conclusions. The study was based on self‐report and conducted in relatively small samples. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

大学生的自尊在成人依恋与人际信任的调节作用

目的探讨大学生的自尊在其成人依恋和人际信任关系中的调节作用。方法采用大学生成人依恋、自尊与人际信任问卷对1048名大学生进行调查,使用SPSS 13.0进行数据分析。结果①大学生成人依恋中的依恋回避与人际信任呈正相关（r=0.126,P〈0.01）,与自尊呈正相关（r=0.192,P〈0.01）;大学生成人依恋中的依恋焦虑与人际信任呈正相关（r=0.168,P〈0.01）,与自尊呈正相关（r=0.230,P〈0.01）;②依恋焦虑＊自尊对人际信任的回归效果（F=41.747,P〈0.01）达到了显著水平,依恋焦虑＊自尊对人际信任有显著的预测作用。结论自尊在大学生的成人依恋和人际信任间具有调节作用。     

P300 and personality: an investigation with the Cloninger's model.

The relationships between P300 and personality have been explored mainly in reference to the model of personality described by Eysenck because of its biological bases. Recently, Cloninger and his colleagues have proposed a model of personality based on four temperaments and three characters. The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) is a 226-item self-questionnaire developed to assess these seven dimensions of personality. In the present study, the relationships between these dimensions of personality and P300 have been investigated in 43 normal subjects. The results show that P300 amplitude is positively correlated with the novelty seeking dimension and negatively correlated with the harm avoidance dimension. In contrast, the other dimensions of the TCI were not related to P300 amplitude. Moreover, P300 latency and reaction time were not associated with the TCI dimensions of personality. This study confirms that personality is related to P300.     

Evaluating the state dependency of the Temperament and Character Inventory dimensions in patients with major depression: a methodological contribution

BACKGROUND: Little is known as to whether or not the seven personality dimensions of Cloninger's theory, particularly the three character dimensions newly included in the theory, are independent of the states of depression. METHODS: One hundred and eight patients with major depression filled out the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) before and after a 16-week antidepressant treatment. RESULTS: The level of depression, as assessed by the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, was correlated positively to the harm avoidance score and negatively to the self-directedness and cooperativeness scores. During the treatment, the scores on these three dimensions significantly changed toward normal values in treatment-responders, but were stable in treatment-nonresponders. The changes in these dimensions were significantly explained by the change in the depression severity during treatment. Scores on novelty seeking, reward dependence, persistence, and self-transcendence were not correlated significantly to the level of depression and did not change significantly during the treatment in either treatment-responders or nonresponders. LIMITATIONS: The changes in the TCI scores during treatment in this study may reflect a non-specific tendency for the scores to change on retest. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that a depressive state can significantly affect assessments of harm avoidance, self-directedness, and cooperativeness in major depression. The administration of the TCI during a depressive episode may elevate the HA score, and may lower the SD and C scores. These findings highlight the importance of considering the state of depression before drawing conclusions about the TCI personality traits, when a patient with major depression is still experiencing a depressive episode.     

The relationship among three models of personality psychopathology: DSM-III-R personality disorder, TCI scores and DSQ defences.

BACKGROUND: Current systems of describing personality pathology have significant shortcomings. A polydiagnostic approach is used to study the relationship between psychological, psychoanalytical and psychopathological models of personality. METHODS: The subjects were 256 patients enrolled in treatment studies of major depression and bulimia nervosa. Subjects were assessed using the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI), the Defense Style Questionnaire (DSQ) and the Structured Clinical Interview for DMS-III-R personality disorders (SCID-II). RESULTS: Subjects had high rates of DSM-III-R personality disorders with 52% having at least one personality disorder. Cluster A personality disorders were correlated with low reward dependence, high harm avoidance and low self-directedness and cooperativeness. Cluster B personality disorders were related to high novelty seeking and low self-directedness and cooperativeness. Cluster C personality disorders were correlated with high harm avoidance and low novelty seeking and low self-directedness. Immature defences were related to DSM-III-R personality symptoms, but individual defences were not related to personality clusters in a predictable way. Immature defences were strongly related to low self-directedness and cooperativeness. Both TCI self-directedness scores and immature defence scores were moderately predictive of the presence and number of personality disorders. CONCLUSION: A widely accepted clinical nosology (DSM-III-R personality disorders) rated using a clinical interview correlates reasonably predictably with two theoretical models derived from different paradigms and rated using self-reports. This might be seen as providing concurrent validity for all three models. However, serious methodological shortcomings confront studies of this type, including sample selection and measurement of personality dysfunction. One way to begin to resolve these problems is to study which personality measures are best related to treatment response and prognosis.     

Age differences in temperament,character and depressive mood: a cross‐sectional study

Introduction: This study explores the effect of age on mean‐levels of the personality traits defined in Cloninger's personality taxonomy, and investigates the relevance of personality traits for predicting depression levels in adults aged 18 to 94 years. Method: We divided our sample (466 participants) into four age groups (young adult, adult, mature adult and elderly). Personality was measured using the Temperament and Character Inventory, and depression was assessed using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Results: Analysis of variance showed mean‐level changes for all the personality traits except Self‐D. Post hoc analyses revealed a decrease in the level of novelty seeking with age and an increase in the level of self‐transcendence for the two oldest age groups. Reward dependence was highest among the youngest participants, whereas harm avoidance was highest for both the youngest and the oldest age groups. Depression correlated positively with harm avoidance and age but negatively with self‐transcendence. Discussion: Impulsiveness, curiosity and social dependency decrease with age, whereas spirituality increases. Young and elderly adults are more fearful and socially inhibited. Harm avoidance and self‐transcendence are the most relevant personality traits for predicting levels of depression. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.