脑钠素在心力衰竭诊断中的应用

目的 研究血浆脑钠素（BNP）在诊断心力衰竭尤其是早期心力衰竭中的作用，观察BNP水平与纽约心脏病学会（NYHA）心功能分级及心脏超声指标的相关性；评价血浆BNP水平对心力衰竭患者不良心血管事件发生率的预测价值。方法 把所有受试者分为2组：观察组及对照组。观察组进一步分为慢性心功能不全组，急性心功能不全组，慢性心功能不全急性恶化组。用放射免疫法测定血浆BNP水平，用超声心动图测定左房内径（LA）、左室射血分数（LVEF）、左室舒张末期内径（LVEDD），观察BNP水平与LA、LVEF、LVEDD的相关性。对出院时NYHA心功能分级为Ⅱ～Ⅲ级的患者进行3个月随访，根据出院后的服药情况分为：常规治疗组和卡维地络组，观察其血浆BNP水平变化。结果 （1）观察组的血浆BNP水平显著高于对照组；（2）各心功能不全组间BNP水平存在显著差异，且BNP水平随NYHA分级升高而升高；（3）BNP值与LA、LVEDD呈显著正相关、与LVEF值（％）呈负相关；（4）发生不良心血管事件患者的BNP水平高于无不良心血管事件患者；卡维地络组病人的血浆BNP水平显著低于常规治疗组。结论 BNP测定是辅助诊断心功能不全的有效方法，尤其是在心力衰竭早期，BNP水平还可以反映心功能不全的严重程度。     

慢性心衰的诊断、药物及非药物治疗进展

心力衰竭是各种心脏结构或功能性疾病导致心室充盈及（或）射血能力受损而引起的一组综合征,是多数心血管疾病的最终转归,也是导致患者死亡的主要原因,在一般人群中的患病率为1％～2％,＜65岁者为1％,（65～79）岁者＞5％,80岁以上者达10％～20％,心功能Ⅲ级和Ⅳ级的患者年死亡率高达50％[1].美国Framingham研究[2]表明,冠心病、高血压、糖尿病是引起心衰的主要原因.Cowie等[3]的调查也得出类似结果.经济不发达国家的病因构成与以上明显不同.     

A Rapid Access Heart Failure Clinic provides a prompt diagnosis and appropriate management of new heart failure presenting in the community

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The diagnosis of heart failure is an important clinical problem and yet reported diagnostic accuracy in primary care is less than 50%. We established a Rapid Access Heart Failure Clinic (RAHFC) in a district general hospital serving a population of 292,000 in SE London, UK, to diagnose and manage new cases of heart failure presenting for the first time in the community. METHODS: Patients with suspected new onset heart failure were referred by their Primary Care Physician without appointment for clinical assessment on the same or next working day. Assessment by a specialist registrar in cardiology included history, examination, chest X-ray, electrocardiogram (ECG) and echocardiogram. When a diagnosis of heart failure was made appropriate treatment, including angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI), was started. RESULTS: Over 15 months 383 patients were seen (0.4 cases/100,000 population/weekday) 178/383 (46%) were considered to have definite or possible heart failure at the initial assessment in the RAHFC. A normal ECG (negative predictive value 94%) and chest X-ray virtually excluded the diagnosis of heart failure. After subsequent specialist investigations and follow-up, including a trial of therapy where appropriate, 101/383 (26%) were finally diagnosed as clinical heart failure. ACEI therapy was commenced in 56/57 (98%) of patients in whom it was considered appropriate. CONCLUSION: The RAHFC provided rapid assessment, prompt diagnosis and early introduction of life prolonging therapy for patients presenting with suspected heart failure in the community.     

Diagnosis of heart failure in primary care

Heart failure is becoming an increasing concern to healthcare worldwide. It is the only cardiovascular disorder that continues to increase in both prevalence and incidence, and as the population continues to age, it is expected that the prevalence of this disease will continue to rise. Guidelines on diagnosis and treatment of heart failure are to be met. Most patients with heart failure will present themselves in general practice. Therefore, the community management of heart failure has become increasingly important and the role of General Practitioners even more crucial. Improving the reliability of diagnosis in primary care is essential since determining the aetiology and stage of heart failure leads to different management choices to improve symptoms, quality of life and disease prognosis. Furthermore, early diagnosis is needed, when there may be no symptoms, since treatment can delay or reverse disease progression. Diagnostic methods may therefore need to encompass screening strategies, as well as symptomatic case identification, in the future. General Practitioners must make correct decisions regarding appropriate further investigation, treatment and referral. A correct diagnosis is the cornerstone leading to effective management. The aim of this paper is to review the role of symptoms and signs and diagnostic tests, such as, chest X-ray, ECG, natriuretic peptides and echocardiography, for diagnosing heart failure in the primary care setting. Improving diagnostic skills remains a continuous challenge for clinicians. Simple and reliable diagnostic procedures are crucial to comply with Guidelines and reduce healthcare utilisation and costs.     

2012欧洲心脏病学会心力衰竭指南更新要点

<正>2012年欧洲心脏病学会(ESC)发布了新的心力衰竭诊断治疗指南[1]。新指南在以下方面做了重要改变。1脑钠肽在心力衰竭诊断中的界值及意义鉴于在病理生理及诊断、治疗方面的明显差异,将心力衰竭明确划分为急性发作的心力衰竭(包括     

Current concept in the diagnosis,treatment and rehabilitation of patients with congestive heart failure

Heart failure(HF) is a major public health problem with a prevalence of 1%-2% in developed countries. The underlying pathophysiology of HF is complex and as a clinical syndrome is characterized by various symptoms and signs. HF is classified according to left ventricular ejection fraction(LVEF) and falls into three groups: LVEF ≥ 50%-HF with preserved ejection fraction(HFpEF), LVEF 40%-HF with reduced ejection fraction(HFrEF), LVEF 40%-49%-HF with mid-range ejection fraction. Diagnosing HF is primarily a clinical approach and it is based on anamnesis, physical examination, echocardiogram, radiological findings of the heart and lungs and laboratory tests, including a specific markers of HF-brain natriuretic peptide or N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide as well as other diagnostic tests in order to elucidate possible etiologies. Updated diagnostic algorithms for HFpEF have been recommended(H2 FPEF, HFA-PEFF). New therapeutic options improve clinical outcomes as well as functional status in patients with HFrEF(e.g., sodium-glucose cotransporter-2-SGLT2 inhibitors) and such progress in treatment of HFrEF patients resulted in new working definition of the term "HF with recovered left ventricular ejection fraction". In line with rapid development of HF treatment, cardiac rehabilitation becomes an increasingly important part of overall approach to patients with chronic HF for it has been proven that exercise training can relieve symptoms, improve exercise capacity and quality of life as well as reduce disability and hospitalization rates. We gave an overview of latest insights in HF diagnosis and treatment with special emphasize on the important role of cardiac rehabilitation in such patients.     

The diagnosis of heart failure in European primary care: The IMPROVEMENT Programme survey of perception and practice

OBJECTIVE: To examine European primary care physicians (PCPs) views on diagnosis of heart failure and compare perceptions with actual practice. DESIGN: Semi-structured PCP interviews and case note review on a random sample of heart failure patients. PARTICIPANTS: 1363 primary care physicians from 14 countries and 11,062 patient notes. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Perceptions of PCPs compared to actual performance in heart failure (HF) diagnosis. RESULTS: Over 50% of patients with HF were above 70 years of age. Most subjects presented with typical clinical symptoms and objective signs of HF. In 50% of cases, HF was mainly diagnosed by PCPs. New York Heart Association classification was used by 50% of physicians. Electrocardiogram and chest X-ray were the most used diagnostic tests (90% and 84% respectively). PCPs considered echocardiography as having low diagnostic value, with only 48% routine usage. However, in actual practice echocardiography was used in 82% of diagnoses. Systolic dysfunction was observed in 51% HF subjects, but only 50% of physicians would differentiate systolic from diastolic heart failure. CONCLUSIONS: There was low use of NYHA classification (which denotes symptom severity) and differentiation between systolic and diastolic causes (which determines treatment strategies).     

急性心力衰竭诊断和治疗指南

1前言 急性心力衰竭（心衰）临床上以急性左心衰竭最为常见,急性右心衰则较少见.急性左心衰竭指急性发作或加重的心功能异常所致的心肌收缩力明显降低、心脏负荷加重,造成急性心排血量骤降、肺循环压力突然升高、周围循环阻力增加,引起肺循环充血而出现急性肺淤血、肺水肿并可伴组织器官灌注不足和心源性休克的临床综合征.     

The validity of a diagnosis of heart failure in a hospital discharge register

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The accuracy of a diagnosis of heart failure (HF) in hospital discharge registers is largely unknown. We aimed to determine the validity of such a diagnosis in the Swedish hospital discharge register. METHODS AND RESULTS: In a population-based study of 2322 middle-aged men (the ULSAM study), 321 participants were diagnosed with HF according to the Swedish hospital discharge register, during a median follow-up time of 29 years. A review board examined the validity of the diagnosis according to the European Society of Cardiology definition of HF. Eighty-two percent of the possible cases were classified as having definite HF. An echocardiographic examination increased the validity to 88%. For patients treated at an internal medicine or cardiology clinic the validity was 86% and 91%, respectively. If HF was the primary diagnosis, the validity was 95%, irrespective of clinic type. CONCLUSION: The HF diagnosis in the Swedish hospital discharge register appears slightly less precise than for acute myocardial infarction and stroke. For population-based research, only those with a primary diagnosis of HF in the hospital discharge register should be regarded as definite HF cases, or alternatively the cases should be validated individually.     

State of the Art: Newer biomarkers in heart failure

Since natriuretic peptides were successfully integrated into the clinical practice of heart failure (HF), the possibility of using new biomarkers to advance the management of affected patients has been explored. While a huge number of candidate HF biomarkers have been described recently, very few have made the difficult translation from initial promise to clinical application. These markers mirror the complex pathophysiology of heart failure at various levels: cell loss (troponin), fibrosis (ST2 and galectin‐3), infection (procalcitonin), and renal disease (several renal markers). In this review, we examine the best emerging candidates for clinical assessment and management of patients with HF.     

The Valsalva maneuver: a bedside "biomarker" for heart failure

Accurate assessment of volume status remains an important clinical goal in the management of patients with heart failure. Although physical examination can provide clues to volume status, its sensitivity and reproducibility are limited. Other noninvasive methods, such as measurement of natriuretic peptides or the use of impedance cardiography, are not well validated. The cardiovascular response to the Valsalva maneuver had been proposed as a simple, inexpensive bedside test for estimating filling pressures in patients with heart failure. Our objective was to summarize and critically evaluate the evidence for the use of the Valsalva maneuver in evaluating volume status in patients with heart failure. Studies have demonstrated a significant correlation between the cardiovascular response to the Valsalva maneuver and invasively measured ventricular filling pressures in patients with clinical heart failure. Although often overlooked in clinical training and practice, the cardiovascular response to the Valsalva maneuver is a potentially useful, noninvasive means of evaluating filling pressures in patients with heart failure.     

Sleep‐disordered breathing in heart failure

Sleep‐disordered breathing—comprising obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA), central sleep apnoea (CSA), or a combination of the two—is found in over half of heart failure (HF) patients and may have harmful effects on cardiac function, with swings in intrathoracic pressure (and therefore preload and afterload), blood pressure, sympathetic activity, and repetitive hypoxaemia. It is associated with reduced health‐related quality of life, higher healthcare utilization, and a poor prognosis. Whilst continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is the treatment of choice for patients with daytime sleepiness due to OSA, the optimal management of CSA remains uncertain. There is much circumstantial evidence that the treatment of OSA in HF patients with CPAP can improve symptoms, cardiac function, biomarkers of cardiovascular disease, and quality of life, but the quality of evidence for an improvement in mortality is weak. For systolic HF patients with CSA, the CANPAP trial did not demonstrate an overall survival or hospitalization advantage for CPAP. A minute ventilation‐targeted positive airway therapy, adaptive servoventilation (ASV), can control CSA and improves several surrogate markers of cardiovascular outcome, but in the recently published SERVE‐HF randomized trial, ASV was associated with significantly increased mortality and no improvement in HF hospitalization or quality of life. Further research is needed to clarify the therapeutic rationale for the treatment of CSA in HF. Cardiologists should have a high index of suspicion for sleep‐disordered breathing in those with HF, and work closely with sleep physicians to optimize patient management.     

Rapid bedside identification of high-risk population in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction by acoustic cardiography

Background

Low left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and the presence of restrictive LV filling pattern are poor prognosticators in heart failure patients with reduced EF (HFREF). We sought to investigate whether acoustic cardiography can identify these high-risk HFREF subgroups.

Methods

A total of 127 HFREF patients (EF < 50%) were enrolled into our study. All patients underwent acoustic cardiographic and echocardiographic examinations. Acoustic cardiographic parameters included S3 score (probability that the third heart sound exists), electromechanical activation time (EMAT, interval from Q wave to the first heart sound; %EMAT is the proportion of cardiac cycle that EMAT occupies), and systolic dysfunction index (SDI, a derived variable from the combination of %EMAT, S3 score, QRS duration and QR interval). Receiver operating characteristic curves were used to determine diagnostic utility of acoustic cardiography.

Results

SDI discriminated (area under curve [AUC], 0.79; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.71–0.87) patients with severely impaired EF (EF ≤ 35%) from those with moderately impaired EF (35% < EF < 50%) with an SDI > 5 that yielded 87% sensitivity and 60% specificity. An S3 score > 4 identified patients with restrictive LV filling pattern with 0.76 AUC (95% CI, 0.67–0.84), 81% sensitivity and 55% specificity.

Conclusions

SDI and S3 score obtained by acoustic cardiography identified HFREF patients with severely impaired systolic and diastolic function, respectively. This simple, bedside technology may be used as a screening tool to identify the sickest HFREF patients for more intensive therapy.     

Diagnosis of elderly patients with heart failure

The prevalence and mortality of heart failure (HF) increase with age. As a result, the early diagnosis of HF in this population is useful to reduce cardiovascular morbidity and probably mortality. However, the diagnosis of HF in the elderly is a challenge. These challenges arise from the under-representation of elderly patients in diagnostic studies and clinical trials, the increasing prevalence of HF with relatively normal ejection fraction, the difficulty in accurate diagnosis, the underuse of diagnostic tests, and the presence of co-morbidities. Particularly in the elderly, symptoms and signs of HF may be atypical and can be simulated or disguised by co-morbidities such as respiratory disease, obesity, and venous insufficiency. This review aims to provide a practical clinical approach for the diagnosis of older patients with HF based on the scarce available evidence and our clinical experience. Therefore, it should be interpreted in many aspects as an opinion paper with practical implications. The most useful clinical symptoms are orthopnoea and paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnoea. However, confirmation of the diagnosis always requires further tests. Although natriuretic peptides accurately exclude cardiac dysfunction as a cause of symptoms, the optimal cut-off level for ruling out HF in elderly patients with other co-morbidities is still not clear. In our opinion, echocardiography should be performed in all elderly patients to confirm the diagnosis of HF, except in those cases with low clinical probability and a concentration of brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) or N-terminal proBNP (NT-proBNP) lower than 100 or 400 pg/mL, respectively.     

Diagnosis and assessment of the heart failure patient: the cornerstone of effective management

Heart Failure is a syndrome describing a pathophysiological state with diverse etiologies. Providing an adequate mechanistic definition is difficult. The current guidelines from the European Society of Cardiology define the diagnosis of heart failure based on three criteria. Patients should have symptoms compatible with heart failure at rest or on exercise. There should be objective evidence of cardiac dysfunction at rest. In doubtful cases, there should be a favourable response following therapy for heart failure. The term diagnosis derives from the Greek words "dia" and "nosi" meaning "through knowledge". It implies that a conclusion is drawn describing the patient's current status based on the available information. This information is commonly based on the symptoms, history, findings at physical examination, results from laboratory tests, and the results from various non-invasive and invasive special examinations. Diagnostic precision is crucial in deciding treatment strategy and this task presents a continuous academic and clinical challenge. Ultimately, the clinical diagnosis of heart failure is based on all the information available to the physicians. No single investigation is specific for this clinical syndrome and management strategies attempt to modify the underlying mechanisms in order to alleviate symptoms and improve survival.