AIDS vaccine: efficacy, safety and ethics

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has infected 50 million people worldwide and killed 16 million so far, and the epidemic is still spreading with 16,000 new cases of HIV infection daily and a projection of 100 million infected individuals by the end of the next decade. There is no question that a safe and effective acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) vaccine is urgently needed to bring the current AIDS pandemic under control. But, is preventive AIDS vaccine an attainable goal? Unfortunately, the results of many laboratory and clinical studies over the past two decades are not encouraging. We comment on the efficacy, safety and ethics of AIDS vaccine, and the urgent need for a new strategy for AIDS vaccine development.     

HIV infection in older adults in sub-Saharan Africa: extrapolating prevalence from existing data

Objective

To quantify the number of cases and prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection among older adults in sub-Saharan Africa.

Methods

We reviewed data from Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS). Although in these surveys all female respondents are < 50 years of age, 18 of the surveys contained data on HIV infection among men aged ≥ 50 years. To estimate the percentage of older adults (i.e. people ≥ 50 years of age) who were positive for HIV (HIV+), we extrapolated from data from the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS on the estimated number of people living with HIV and on HIV infection prevalence among adults aged 15–49 years.

Findings

In 2007, approximately 3 million people aged ≥ 50 years were living with HIV in sub-Saharan Africa. The prevalence of HIV infection in this group was 4.0%, compared with 5.0% among those aged 15–49 years. Of the approximately 21 million people in sub-Saharan Africa aged ≥ 15 years that were HIV+, 14.3% were ≥ 50 years old.

Conclusion

To better reflect the longer survival of people living with HIV and the ageing of the HIV+ population, indicators of the prevalence of HIV infection should be expanded to include people > 49 years of age. Little is known about comorbidity and sexual behaviour among HIV+ older adults or about the biological and cultural factors that increase the risk of transmission. HIV services need to be better targeted to respond to the growing needs of older adults living with HIV.     

The Global HIV/AIDS pandemic, 2006

Since the first cases of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) were reported in 1981, infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has grown to pandemic proportions, resulting in an estimated 65 million infections and 25 million deaths. During 2005 alone, an estimated 2.8 million persons died from AIDS, 4.1 million were newly infected with HIV, and 38.6 million were living with HIV. HIV continues to disproportionately affect certain geographic regions (e.g., sub-Saharan Africa and the Caribbean) and subpopulations (e.g., women in sub-Saharan Africa, men who have sex with men [MSM], injection-drug users [IDUs], and sex workers). Effective prevention and treatment of HIV infection with antiretroviral therapy (ART) are now available, even in countries with limited resources. Nonetheless, comprehensive programs are needed to reach all persons who require treatment and to prevent transmission of new infections.     

Projections of HIV infections and AIDS cases to the year 2000

After the recognition of AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) in the early 1980s, uncertainty about the present and future dimensions of HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection led to the development of many models to estimate current and future numbers of HIV infections and AIDS cases. The Global Programme on AIDS (GPA) of the World Health Organization (WHO) has developed an AIDS projection model which relies on available HIV seroprevalence data and on the annual rate of progression from HIV infection to AIDS for use in areas where reporting of AIDS cases is incomplete, and where scant data are available to quantify biological and human behavioural variables. Virtually all models, including the WHO model, have projected large increases in the number of AIDS cases by the early 1990s. Such short-term projections are considered relatively reliable since most of the new AIDS cases will develop in persons already infected with HIV. Longer-term prediction (10 years or longer) is less reliable because HIV prevalence and future trends are determined by many variables, most of which are still not well understood. WHO has now applied the Delphi method to project HIV prevalence from the year 1988 to mid-2000. This method attempts to improve the quality of the judgements and estimates for relatively uncertain issues by the systematic use of knowledgeable "experts". The mean value of the Delphi projections for HIV prevalence in the year 2000 is between 3 and 4 times the 1988 base estimate of 5.1 million; these projections have been used to obtain annual estimates of adult AIDS cases up to the year 2000. Coordinated HIV/AIDS prevention and control programmes are considered by the Delphi participants to be potentially capable of preventing almost half of the new HIV infections that would otherwise occur between 1988 and the year 2000. However, more than half of the approximately 5 million AIDS cases which are projected for the next decade will occur despite the most rigorous and effective HIV/AIDS prevention efforts since these AIDS cases will develop in persons whose HIV infection was acquired prior to 1989. The Delphi projections of HIV infection and AIDS cases derived from the WHO projection model need to be periodically reviewed and modified as additional data become available. These projections should be viewed as the first of many attempts to develop estimates for planning strategies to combat the HIV/AIDS pandemic in the 1990s.     

The global HIV and AIDS epidemic, 2001

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) are pandemic and pose one of the greatest challenges to global public health. As a bloodborne and sexually transmitted infection, HIV has variable patterns of transmission and impact among world regions and has disproportionately affected disadvantaged or marginalized persons such as commercial sex workers, injection drug users, men who have sex with men (MSM), and persons living in poverty. HIV infection has caused approximately 20 million deaths; an estimated 36 million persons are infected (Figure 1). On the basis of data from the Joint United Nations Program on AIDS (UNAIDS) and other sources, this report summarizes epidemiologic trends, highlights several HIV and AIDS prevention milestones, and describes some prevention activities for the coming decade.     

Setting research priorities for adolescent sexual and reproductive health in low- and middle-income countries

Objective

To conduct an expert-led process for identifying research priorities in adolescent sexual and reproductive health in low- and middle-income countries.

Methods

The authors modified the priority-setting method of the Child Health and Nutrition Research Initiative (CHNRI) to obtain input from nearly 300 researchers, health programme managers and donors with wide-ranging backgrounds and experiences and from all geographic regions. In a three-Phase process, they asked these experts to: (i) rank outcome areas in order of importance; (ii) formulate research questions within each area, and (iii) rank the formulated questions.

Findings

Seven areas of adolescent sexual and reproductive health were identified as important: (i) maternal health; (ii) contraception; (iii) gender-based violence; (iv) treatment and care of patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection; (v) abortion; (vi) integration of family planning and HIV-related services and (vii) sexually transmitted infections. Experts generated from 30 to 40 research questions in each area, and to prioritize these questions, they applied five criteria focused on: clarity, answerability, impact, implementation and relevance for equity. Rankings were based on overall mean scores derived by averaging the scores for individual criteria. Experts agreed strongly on the relative importance of the questions in each area.

Conclusion

Research questions on the prevalence of conditions affecting adolescents are giving way to research questions on the scale-up of existing interventions and the development of new ones. CHNRI methods can be used by donors and health programme managers to prioritize research on adolescent sexual and reproductive health.     

Health transition in Africa: practical policy proposals for primary care

Sub-Saharan Africa is undergoing health transition as increased globalization and accompanying urbanization are causing a double burden of communicable and noncommunicable diseases. Rates of communicable diseases such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria in Africa are the highest in the world. The impact of noncommunicable diseases is also increasing. For example, age-standardized mortality from cardiovascular disease may be up to three times higher in some African than in some European countries. As the entry point into the health service for most people, primary care plays a key role in delivering communicable disease prevention and care interventions. This role could be extended to focus on noncommunicable diseases as well, within the context of efforts to strengthen health systems by improving primary-care delivery. We put forward practical policy proposals to improve the primary-care response to the problems posed by health transition: (i) improving data on communicable and noncommunicable diseases; (ii) implementing a structured approach to the improved delivery of primary care; (iii) putting the spotlight on quality of clinical care; (iv) aligning the response to health transition with health system strengthening; and (v) capitalizing on a favourable global policy environment. Although these proposals are aimed at primary care in sub-Saharan Africa, they may well be relevant to other regions also facing the challenges of health transition. Implementing these proposals requires action by national and international alliances in mobilizing the necessary investments for improved health of people in developing countries in Africa undergoing health transition.     

How the response to the epidemic of HIV infection has strengthened the public health system.

Since acquired immunodeficiency virus (AIDS) was first identified in 1981, it has become one of the leading causes of death in men and women 25-44 years of age in the United States. The urgent public health response to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and AIDS epidemic has required the development of new prevention programs; these efforts have significantly strengthened the public health system itself. A major part of CDC's mission is to prevent HIV infection and reduce the incidence of HIV-associated illness. In fighting HIV infection and AIDS, as in all successful public health programs, CDC has four important goals: (a) to assess risks, (b) to develop prevention technologies, (c) to build prevention capacities, and (d) to implement prevention programs. The urgency of the need to prevent HIV infection and AIDS has in many instances added impetus or substance to programs already under way, as well as prompting the development of new initiatives to meet the four goals. Examples of ways in which the public health system has benefited from HIV-related programs and activities are detailed in this article. Although the HIV epidemic has created significant stresses in many areas of public health and medical services, the experience gained in dealing with this epidemic will strengthen the nation's response to other health crises that arise. Despite the huge challenges, lessons learned thus far provide direction and hope for the future.     

The 20th year of AIDS: a time to re-energize prevention

Since the first acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) cases were reported in 1981, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has caused approximately 22 million deaths worldwide. In the United States, approximately 400,000 persons have died, and approximately one million have been infected. However, numerous persons have avoided infection through prevention efforts, and many lives have been prolonged through advances in treatment.     

Perspectives on HIV/AIDS epidemiology and prevention from the Eighth International Conference on AIDS.

The Eighth International AIDS Symposium in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, provided updated scientific and programmatic information on the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) to thousands of interested participants. As in the other scientific areas, the amount of information presented in epidemiology and prevention was overwhelming; however, the scientific progress described was steady but incremental. This commentary summarizes progress made in three selected areas that were highlighted during the meeting's scientific session and a fourth that received widespread media attention: (1) the epidemiology of HIV/AIDS in heterosexual women; (2) tuberculosis as an increasing opportunistic pathogen in HIV-infected persons; (3) prevention research, practice, and policy; and (4) preliminary reports of severe immunodeficiency in persons without evident HIV infection. In order to stem HIV transmission worldwide, a safe and effective vaccine is urgently needed. Currently, in the absence of such a vaccine, it is crucial for all of the world's communities to apply the best science-based prevention methods available.     

Economic,Legal, and Social Hardships Associated with HIV Risk among Black Men who have Sex with Men in Six US Cities

We assessed whether economic, legal, and social hardships were associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) risk among a sample of Black men who have sex with men (MSM) and whether associations were moderated by city of residence. The study analyzed baseline and follow-up data from HIV Prevention Trials Network 061 (N = 1553). Binary logistic regression assessed associations between hardships and HIV risk indicators. Multivariate regressions were used to test if city of residence had a moderating effect for hardships and HIV risks. Adjusted analyses showed that Black MSM with recent job loss were more likely to engage in condomless insertive anal intercourse (adjusted odds ratios (AOR) = 1.37, 95 % CI 1.01–1.87) and that those with recent financial crisis were more likely to have had two or more male sexual partners in the past 6 months (AOR = 1.65; 95 % CI 1.18–2.29). Black MSM with recent convictions were more likely to have a sexually transmitted infection at 6 months (AOR = 3.97; 95 % CI 1.58–9.94), while those who were unstably housed were more likely to have a sexually transmitted infection at 12 months (AOR = 1.71; 95 %CI 1.02 = 2.86). There were no city of residence and hardship interaction effects on HIV risks. Hardships are important factors that influence HIV risk for Black MSM. Integrating strategies that address structural factors that influence HIV risk may enhance HIV prevention interventions implementation efforts.     

Host genes and HIV: the role of the chemokine receptor gene CCR5 and its allele.

Since the late 1970s, 8.4 million people worldwide, including 1.7 million children, have died of AIDS, and an estimated 22 million people are infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)(1). During 1995 and 1996, major clinical and laboratory discoveries regarding HIV pathogenesis provided new hope for the prevention and treatment of HIV infection. One major discovery was that members of the chemokine receptor family serve as cofactors for HIV entry into cells. We describe the role of allelic polymorphism in the gene coding for the CCR5 chemokine receptor with regard to susceptibility to and disease course of HIV infection. We also examine the effect of this discovery on medical and public health practices.     

Trends in HIV/AIDS diagnoses--33 states, 2001-2004

In 2003, more than 1 million persons in the United States were estimated to be living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. As a result of advances in treatment with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) since 1996, persons infected with HIV are living longer than before and progression to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) has decreased. Consequently, AIDS surveillance no longer provides accurate population-based monitoring of the current HIV epidemic. Therefore, CDC recommends that all states and territories adopt confidential, name-based surveillance systems to report HIV infection. This report describes the characteristics of persons for whom HIV infection was diagnosed during 2001-2004 and reported to 33 state and local health departments with name-based HIV reporting. The findings indicate that the rate of HIV diagnosis in these states decreased among non-Hispanic blacks from 2001 to 2004; however, the rate of HIV diagnosis among blacks remained disproportionately high. In 2004, the rate among blacks was 8.4 times higher than among whites. Improved knowledge of HIV status and access to care and prevention services is important to decrease the number of new HIV infections among those populations most affected.     

2010 - 2015年广西艾滋病防治人力资源现状及公平性分析

目的 了解2010 - 2015年广西艾滋病防治人员分布的情况、分析2015年广西各市艾滋病防治人力资源分布公平性。方法 分析广西各市艾滋病防治人员情况,采用Lorenz曲线和基尼系数对2015年艾滋病防治工作人员分布公平性进行分析。结果 2010 - 2015年广西艾滋病防治人员总数分别为20 695人、22 194人、2 4027人、26 779人、27 982人、30 638人,2015年防治人员总数较2010年增加48.1%,至2015年,市级、县（区）级、镇（乡）级平均拥有的艾滋病防治人员数量分别为100.1、29.6、5.1人。市级、县级、镇（乡）级兼职人员所占比例均高于专职人员比例。2015年广西平均每千人拥有艾滋病防治人员0.65人,平均每平方公里拥有艾滋病防治人员0.7人,平均每平方公里拥有艾滋病防治人员0.1人,广西艾滋病防治人员的人口Gini系数及行政区域面积Gini系数均为0.2。结论 广西艾滋病防治人员分布的公平性较好,但基层兼职人员比例较大,应适当增加基层专职艾滋病防治人员数量。     

First 3 years of the National AIDS Clearinghouse.

The National AIDS Clearinghouse is an information service provided by the Centers for Disease Control. The Clearinghouse was established in 1987 to respond to increasing numbers of public and professional inquiries, to disseminate accurate information, and to make referrals to local sources of information and assistance. Four data bases--Resources and Services Database containing information about more than 16,000 organizations that provide counseling and testing for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and other education and prevention services; Educational Materials Database containing more than 8,000 individual, hard-to-find educational materials; Funding Database; and the AIDS Clinical Trial Information Service (ACTIS) Database--are searched by information specialists to respond to more than 45,000 requests annually for information from a variety of health professionals, organizations, and the general public. Between 1987 and 1991, the Clearinghouse disseminated more than 60 million copies of publications related to HIV and AIDS. Information and education remain the most critical tools for the prevention of HIV infection, and the National AIDS Clearinghouse provides an essential element for the dissemination of education and prevention information.     

HIV epidemic control—a model for optimal allocation of prevention and treatment resources

With 33 million people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) worldwide and 2.7 million new infections occurring annually, additional HIV prevention and treatment efforts are urgently needed. However, available resources for HIV control are limited and must be used efficiently to minimize the future spread of the epidemic. We develop a model to determine the appropriate resource allocation between expanded HIV prevention and treatment services. We create an epidemic model that incorporates multiple key populations with different transmission modes, as well as production functions that relate investment in prevention and treatment programs to changes in transmission and treatment rates. The goal is to allocate resources to minimize R ₀, the reproductive rate of infection. We first develop a single-population model and determine the optimal resource allocation between HIV prevention and treatment. We extend the analysis to multiple independent populations, with resource allocation among interventions and populations. We then include the effects of HIV transmission between key populations. We apply our model to examine HIV epidemic control in two different settings, Uganda and Russia. As part of these applications, we develop a novel approach for estimating empirical HIV program production functions. Our study provides insights into the important question of resource allocation for a country’s optimal response to its HIV epidemic and provides a practical approach for decision makers. Better decisions about allocating limited HIV resources can improve response to the epidemic and increase access to HIV prevention and treatment services for millions of people worldwide.     

Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: nutrition intervention in the care of persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection

Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the development of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) have had a significant impact on domestic and global health, social, political, and economic outcomes. Prevention and treatment efforts to control HIV infection are more demanding than in previous decades. Achieving food and nutrition security, and managing nutrition-related complications of HIV infection and the multiple aspects of disease initiated by or surrounding HIV infection, referred to as HIV disease, remain challenges for patients and for those involved with HIV/AIDS prevention, care, and treatment efforts. Confounding clinical issues include medication interactions, coinfection with other infections and diseases, wasting, lipodystrophy, and others. Dietetics professionals, other health care professionals, and people infected with HIV will need to understand and address multiple complex aspects of HIV infection and treatment to improve survival, body functions, and overall quality of life. Individualized nutrition care plans will be an essential feature of the medical management of persons with HIV infection and AIDS.     

Prevention and treatment of human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in resource-limited settings

Strategies for confronting the epidemic of human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) have included a range of different approaches that focus on prevention and treatment. However, debate persists over what levels of emphasis are appropriate for the different components of the global response. This paper presents an overview of this debate and briefly summarizes the evidence on a range of interventions designed to prevent the spread of HIV infection, paying particular attention to voluntary counselling and testing, treatment for sexually transmitted infections and prevention of mother-to-child transmission. We also review the experience with antiretroviral therapy to date in terms of response rates and survival rates, adherence, drug resistance, behavioural change and epidemiological impact. Although various studies have identified strategies with proven effectiveness in reducing the risks of HIV infection and AIDS mortality, considerable uncertainties remain. Successful integration of treatment and prevention of HIV/AIDS will require a balanced approach and rigorous monitoring of the impact of programmes in terms of both individual and population outcomes.     

Reproductive choices for women with HIV

Access to reproductive health services for women with HIV is critical to ensuring their reproductive needs are addressed and their reproductive rights are protected. In addition, preventing unintended pregnancies in women with HIV is an essential component of a comprehensive prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) programme. As a result, a call for stronger linkages between sexual and reproductive health and HIV policies, programmes and services has been issued by several international organizations. However, implementers of PMTCT and other HIV programmes have been constrained in translating these goals into practice. The obstacles include: (i) the narrow focus of current PMTCT programmes on treating HIV-positive women who are already pregnant; (ii) separate, parallel funding mechanisms for sexual and reproductive health and HIV programmes; (iii) political resistance from major HIV funders and policy-makers to include sexual and reproductive health as an important HIV programme component; and (iv) gaps in the evidence base regarding effective approaches for integrating sexual and reproductive health and HIV services.However, we now have a new opportunity to address these essential linkages. More supportive political views in the United States of America and the emergence of health systems strengthening as a priority global health initiative provide important springboards for advancing the agenda on linkages between sexual and reproductive health and HIV. By tapping into these platforms for advocating and by continuing to invest in research to identify integrated service delivery best practices, we have an opportunity to strengthen ties between the two synergistic fields.