Resectable breast cancer: axillary dissection sparing pectoralis muscles and nerves

In breast cancer surgery, axillary dissection is currently considered an essential step. Nevertheless, procedures commonly used include the resection of the pectoralis minor muscle and/or pectoralis nerves. Since 1984 we have performed axillary dissection by sparing both the pectoralis muscles and their nerves. In this paper we present the surgical technique. The comparison of the two groups with clinical N0 N1a assessment, the former of 103 patients submitted to this kind of surgical procedure, the latter (108 women) treated by resection of the pectoralis minor muscle, showed that the mean number of dissected lymph nodes in both procedures was superimposable.     

Clinical Significance of the Axillary Arch in Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy

Purpose

The axillary arch is an anomalous muscle that is not infrequently encountered during axillary sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) of breast cancer patients. In this study, we aimed to investigate how often the axillary arch is found during SLNB and whether it affects the intraoperative sentinel lymph node (SLN) identification rate.

Methods

We retrospectively analyzed the correlation between the presence of the axillary arch and the SLN sampling failure rate during SLNB in 1,069 patients who underwent axillary SLNB for invasive breast cancer.

Results

Of 1,069 patients who underwent SLNB, 79 patients (7.4%) had the axillary arch present. The SLNB failure rate was high when the patient''s body mass index was ≥25 (p=0.026), when a single SLN mapping technique was used (p=0.012), and when the axillary arch was present (p<0.001). These three factors were also found to be statistically significant by multivariate analysis, and of these three factors, presence of the axillary arch most significantly increased the SLNB failure rate (hazard ratio, 10.96; 95% confidence interval, 4.42-27.21; p<0.001). Additionally, if the axillary arch was present, the mean operative time of SLNB was 20.8 minutes, compared to 12.5 minutes when the axillary arch was not present (p<0.001). If the axillary arch was present, the SLN was often located in a high axillary region (67%) rather than in a general low axillary location.

Conclusion

The axillary arch was found to be a significant factor affecting intraoperative SLN failure rate. It is necessary to keep in mind that carefully checking the high axillar region during SLNB in breast cancer patients with the axillary arch is important for reducing SLN sampling failure.     

Transpectoral anterior approach to the axilla for lymph node dissection in association with mastectomy preserving both pectoral muscles and their neurovascular bundles

In Patey's mastectomy, which is still the most common operation for breast cancer, axillary node dissection (AND) is performed through the base of the axilla after retracting the pectoralis major muscle and excising the pectoralis minor muscle (some surgeons preserve the latter). This has the disadvantage of inadequate exposure of the axilla and the risk of damage to the neurovascular bundles supplying the pectoral muscles, which in the long run may lead to atrophy of these muscles. A transpectoral anterior approach to the axilla for AND in association with mastectomy was attempted in 115 cases to obviate the above-mentioned disadvantages. The approach included: 1) splitting of the pectoralis major between the clavicular and sternal fibers; 2) mobilization and swinging of the pectoralis minor into different directions by means of a sling to facilitate AND at selected levels. The major advantages of this approach were: 1) total preservation of both pectoral muscles with their neurovascular bundles maintained the normal anatomy and function of the shoulder; 2) the axilla was directly approached through the anterior wall instead of through the base; in this way the axillary contents were exposed almost at surface level; 3) the dissection plane could be limited to anterior to and below the axillary vein and the risk of postoperative lymphedema could thus be minimized; 4) change of position of the ipsilateral arm was not necessary; 5) the duration of surgery was reduced. Monoblock ablation of significant and suspected tissues, maintaining the normal anatomy and function of the shoulder, could be easily accomplished with this approach.     

乳腺癌Auchincloss术中保护肋间臂神经、胸肌神经的意义

目的：探讨在乳腺癌Auchincloss术中保护肋间臂神经、胸肌神经的临床意义。方法：对2008年9月-2010年10月间的38例乳腺癌患者,在Auchincloss术中行腋淋巴结清扫时,注意游离并保护肋间臂神经、胸肌神经,随访观察术前、术后患者胸大肌功能、胸大肌外缘厚度、上臂内侧及腋部皮肤感觉功能的变化;腋窝淋巴结清扫的数量,对术中保护肋间臂神经、胸肌神经的价值进行评估。结果：38例患者中患侧上臂内侧及腋部皮肤感觉正常32例,感觉异常仅2例,占5.6%,4例腋窝淋巴结明显肿大与之黏连,放弃保留肋间臂神经;38例患者均成功保留胸肌神经,经术后随访观察,胸大肌功能均为5级,术后6个月复查B超,胸大肌外缘厚度与术前比较无明显差异。结论：在乳腺癌Auchincloss术中注意保护肋间臂神经、胸肌神经可有效避免术后上臂内侧皮肤感觉障碍及胸大肌萎缩,能明显改善患者术后生存质量,对手术疗效并无影响。     

Preoperative diagnosis of the axillary arch with multidetector row computed tomography and the axillary arch in association with anatomical problems of sentinel lymph node biopsy

Background  

The purpose of this study was to describe the preoperative diagnosis of the axillary arch with multidetector row computed tomography (MDCT) in patients who underwent sentinel lymph node (SLN) biopsy. In addition, we investigated anatomical problems of SLN biopsy in the cases that diagnosed this anomaly.     

Hemifacial microsomia

Congenital abnormalities of face emerge as a constellation of malformation of structures which arise from the first and the second branchial arch and the intervening first pharyngeal pouch and the primordia of the temporal bone. When fully expressed, a patient with hemifacial microsomia [Syn: otomandibular dysostosis] exhibits usually unilaterally under developed external or middle ear, mandible, zygoma, maxilla, temporal bone, facial muscles, muscles of masticiation. Many cases however, have been reported where the syndrom is not fully expressed (Crabb 1965).     

Distribution of axillary lymph node metastases in different levels and groups in breast cancer, a pathological study

BackgroundIt was observed during dissection of heavy deposits of axillary lymph nodes (LNs) in breast cancer that there were grossly positive LNs outside the confines of classical axillary dissection.Aim of studyTo know the extent of LN metastases in these new basins by dissecting and labeling them separately, for pathological examination and proper staging of those patients.Patients and methodsFrom 2005 to 2009, 59 private patients with breast cancer who had positive axillary LNs were subjected to axillary dissection with accurate leveling according to its relation to pectoralis minor. In addition to the classical three levels, the brachial, thoracoacromial, humeral, scapular and Rotter’s lymph nodes were dissected.ResultsLevels I, II and III axillary LNs were involved in 91.5%, 62.7%, and 52.5%, respectively. Skip metastases (without the involvement of level one) were found in 5/59 patients (8.4%). Brachial, acromiothoracic, humeral and Rotter’s LNs were involved in 10.1%, 15.2%, 5% and 1.7%, respectively, with no metastatic deposits encountered in scapular LNs. In our patients, lymphedema of the ipsilateral upper limb was nearly of the same incidence as after classical axillary dissection.ConclusionIn addition to the classic complete axillary lymph node dissection (ALND) indicated in patients with breast cancer with axillary LNs metastases, dissection of the brachial, acromiothoracic, humeral, Rotter’s and scapular LNs, is recommended for proper staging.     

The preservation of minor pectoralis muscle in axillary dissection for breast cancer: functional and cosmetic evaluation.

We have evaluated, in two groups of 50 patients each submitted to axillary dissection for breast cancer (10 mastectomies and 90 conservative procedures), the advantage of the preservation of the minor pectoralis muscle. This muscle was preserved in one group and removed in the other. Whereas in the immediate postoperative period complications (shoulder pain, functional impairment, quantity or duration of serum drainage from the axilla) were the same in the two groups, at longer follow-up (more than 6 months after surgery) the patients whose pectoralis minor muscle was preserved showed a reduction in the incidence of partial atrophy and fibrosis of the pectoralis major muscle. Patients treated with conservation of the pectoralis minor muscle showed this atrophy in 6% of cases vs 54% observed in the other patients. This fact may be related to disruption of the pectoral nerves, which are in close contact with the pectoralis minor during their course from the brachial plexus to the pectoralis major muscle.     

背阔肌解剖变异在乳腺癌腋窝淋巴结清扫术中的临床意义

  目的  通过对腋窝处变异的背阔肌进行详尽解剖,为降低乳腺癌腋窝淋巴结清扫术中腋窝处重要神经血管损伤,减少手术并发症提供依据。  方法  收集128例行腋窝淋巴结清扫术的乳腺癌患者中发生背阔肌解剖变异19例,对该19例患者的背阔肌变异肌束进行详尽的大体解剖,找到其起点与止点,并测量长、宽、厚度,观察与腋窝神经、血管、淋巴结的毗邻关系。  结果  19例发生背阔肌解剖变异的肌束均从背阔肌外侧缘发出一束肌腱,向内上走行,横跨腋血管神经束,在其上方,呈“扇形”腱膜延续为喙锁胸筋膜的一部分止于喙突。其中14例为单肌束走行,5例变异肌束从背阔肌发出后与胸大肌外缘发出一肌束会合,再并行向上。该变异肌束与背阔肌止端健呈“丫”型夹持着腋血管神经束。肋间臂神经从其表面或深面通过。其内下侧毗邻胸背神经及肩胛下血管,后外毗邻肩胛下血管外淋巴组织。  结论  背阔肌变异肌束可造成腋窝淋巴结清扫术的解剖混淆,给腋淋巴结清扫术时的定位带来困难。因此,了解此种变异在腋窝淋巴结清扫术中具有重要意义。      

Skin sparing mastectomy: Technique and suggested methods of reconstruction

AimTo demonstrate the feasibility and accessibility of performing adequate mastectomy to extirpate the breast tissue, along with en-block formal axillary dissection performed from within the same incision. We also compared different methods of immediate breast reconstruction used to fill the skin envelope to achieve the best aesthetic results.Methods38 patients with breast cancer underwent skin-sparing mastectomy with formal axillary clearance, through a circum-areolar incision. Immediate breast reconstruction was performed using different techniques to fill in the skin envelope. Two reconstruction groups were assigned; group 1: Autologus tissue transfer only (n = 24), and group 2: implant augmentation (n = 14).Autologus tissue transferThe techniques used included filling in the skin envelope using Extended Latissimus Dorsi flap (18 patients) and Pedicled TRAM flap (6 patients).Augmentation with implantsSubpectoral implants(4 patients), a rounded implant placed under the pectoralis major muscle to augment an LD reconstructed breast. LD pocket (10 patients), an anatomical implant placed over the pectoralis major muscle within a pocket created by the LD flap. No contra-lateral procedure was performed in any of the cases to achieve symmetry.ResultsAll cases underwent adequate excision of the breast tissue along with en-block complete axillary clearance (when indicated), without the need for an additional axillary incision.Eighteen patients underwent reconstruction using extended LD flaps only, six had TRAM flaps, four had augmentation using implants placed below the pectoralis muscle along with LD flaps, and ten had implants placed within the LD pocket.Breast shape, volume and contour were successfully restored in all patients.Adequate degree of ptosis was achieved, to ensure maximal symmetry.ConclusionsSkin Sparing mastectomy through a circum-areolar incision has proven to be a safe and feasible option for the management of breast cancer in Egyptian women, offering them adequate oncologic control and optimum cosmetic outcome through preservation of the skin envelope of the breast when ever indicated. Our patients can benefit from safe surgery and have good cosmetic outcomeby applying different reconstructive techniques.     

乳腺癌Auchincloss术中保护肋间臂神经、胸肌神经的意义

目的:探讨在乳腺癌Auchincloss术中保护肋间臂神经、胸肌神经的临床意义.方法:对2008年9月-2010年10月间的38例乳腺癌患者,在Auchincloss术中行腋淋巴结清扫时,注意游离并保护肋间臂神经、胸肌神经,随访观察术前、术后患者胸大肌功能、胸大肌外缘厚度、上臂内侧及腋部皮肤感觉功能的变化;腋窝淋巴结清扫的数量,对术中保护肋间臂神经、胸肌神经的价值进行评估.结果:38例患者中患侧上臂内侧及腋部皮肤感觉正常32例,感觉异常仅2例,占5.6%,4例腋窝淋巴结明显肿大与之黏连,放弃保留肋间臂神经;38例患者均成功保留胸肌神经,经术后随访观察,胸大肌功能均为5级,术后6个月复查B超,胸大肌外缘厚度与术前比较无明显差异.结论:在乳腺癌Auchincloss术中注意保护肋间臂神经、胸肌神经可有效避免术后上臂内侧皮肤感觉障碍及胸大肌萎缩,能明显改善患者术后生存质量,对手术疗效并无影响.     

A novel technique of raising a pectoralis major myocutaneous flap through the skin paddle incision alone

A good reconstruction should not only be functionally and aesthetically sound at the recipient site but also cause least possible cosmetic aberration of the donor site. The pectoralis major myocutaneous (PMMC) flap continues to be one of the most commonly used flap for head and neck reconstruction in this part of the world. Conventionally, once the skin paddle over the pectoralis major muscle is marked, a line is drawn joining the outer edge of the skin flap extending to the apex of the anterior axillary skin fold or midclavicular point to expose the underlying pectoralis major muscle and harvest the flap. We intend to suggest a novel technique, in which the pectoralis major muscle is exposed by raising the skin around the skin paddle incision alone without making any further extension.     

Incidence and risk factors for axillary web syndrome after breast cancer surgery

The objective of the study is to estimate the incidence and risk factors of axillary web syndrome (AWS) in early postoperative period (45 days). From the prospective cohort of women undergoing breast cancer surgery, we collected the variables related to patient characteristics, treatment, tumor, and postoperative complications. We performed bivariate and logistic regression. A total of 193 patients are included with a mean age of 58.26 years, majority of which are women who are overweight or obese (72.3%). The incidence of AWS was 28.1%. The presence of pain in the ipsilateral upper-limb associated with AWS was reported in 5.4% of the patients, and the shoulder joint restriction was observed in 11.4%. When controlling for confounding between AWS and the factors that showed statistical significance in bivariate analysis, the variables that explain the occurrence of the AWS were the type of axillary surgery, where women who underwent sentinel lymph node biopsy showed 68% less risk compared with those that underwent axillary lymphadenectomy (AL) (RR = 0.32; 95% CI, 0.13−0.79; P value = 0.014) and numbness in the arm after an injury of the intercostobrachial nerve, which is 3.19 times the risk of the AWS (RR = 3.19; 95% CI, 1.40−7.29, P value = 0.006). From the above findings, we concluded that the incidence of AWS was 28.1%, and it was associated with AL and numbness in the arm after injury of the intercostobrachial nerve.     

Sentinel node biopsy in breast cancer patients with clinically negative lymph-nodes

Background  The purpose of the present study is to evaluate the usefulness of dye-guided sentinel node biopsy in breast cancer patients with clinically negative nodes and to clarify the anatomic distribution of sentinel nodes in the axilla. Methods  Sentinel node biopsy was performed in patients with T1 or T2 breast cancer who had clinically negative nodes, using an indocyanin green dye-guided method. Thereafter, complete axillary dissection was performed. Sentinel node and complete axillary lymph-node dissection specimens were examined separately, and the incidence of metastases was compared. Results  We identified sentinel nodes in 115 (76.7%) of 150 patients with clinically negative nodes. The mean number of sentinel nodes was 1.7 (range, one to eight nodes). The mean size of sentinel nodes was 9.0 mm (range, 2.0 to 28.0 mm). Of the 31 patients who had a tumor-positive sentinel node, 14 (45.2%) patients had only the sentinel node involved. There was concordance on histological examination between sentinel node and axillary node status in 111 (96.5%) of 115 cases. Of the sentinel nodes 89.1% were located cranially to the intercostobrachial nerve and within 2 cm of the lateral edge of the pectoralis minor muscle. Conclusions  Sentinel node biopsy guided by indocyanin green dye is an easy technique with an acceptable detection rate of sentinel nodes for breast cancer patients with clinically negative nodes. Most of the sentinel nodes were located near the lateral edge of the pectoralis minor muscle and cranial to the intercostobrachial nerve.     

Clinical significance of pectoralis muscle strength in elderly patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

Introduction:Investigations of muscle dysfunction in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) are limited to peripheral muscles. However, decreased thoracic muscle mass is known and deterioration of chest wall muscle strength is not clear.Objective:The aims of the present study were to evaluate pectoralis muscle strength located on the chest wall and to investigate the relationship of spirometric measurements and respiratory muscle strength with pectoralis muscle strength.Methods:Elderly patient with IPF (mean disease duration 7.47±7.04 years) and the age-and sex-matched healthy volunteers were recruited in this cross-sectional study. The pulmonary function test was performed by a portable spirometer for spirometric variables and a gas analyzer for diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DL_CO). Maximal inspiratory (MIP) and expiratory pressure (MEP) were measured with mouth pressure device. Modified Medical Research Council Dyspnea Scale (MMRC) was used to determined dyspnea severity. The pectoralis muscle strength was assessed isometrically during shoulder joint horizontal adduction movement with a handheld dynamometer.Results:A total of 17 patients with IPF (9 males, mean age 69.06±3.94 years) and 19 healthy controls (10 males, mean age 70.95 ±4.99 years) were included. Patients with IPF had lower pectoralis muscle strength than healthy controls (p<0.001). Significant relationships were found between pectoralis muscle strength and MIP (r=0.79, p<0.001), MEP (r=0.81, p<0.001), FEV₁% (r=0.54, p=0.02), FVC% (r=0.68, p<0.003) and DL_CO (r=0.61, p=0.009). With multiple linear regression analysis, pectoralis muscle strength was the only independent predictor of FVC% (adjusted R²=0.37, p<0.05).Conclusion:In patients with IPF, pectoralis muscle strength decreases and is associated with pulmonary function. In particular pectoralis muscle strength is likely to have an important impact on FVC%. Therefore, we consider that this test should be included routinely in chest diseases and rehabilitation clinics. The trial was registered U.S. National Library of Medicine clinical trial registry (https://clinicaltrials.gov, Trial ID: {"type":"clinical-trial","attrs":{"text":"NCT04803617","term_id":"NCT04803617"}}NCT04803617)     

改良乳腺癌根治术保留胸前神经的方法及临床意义

目的：探讨在改良乳腺癌根治术中保留胸前神经的方法和临床意义.方法：将68例拟行改良乳腺癌根治术的患者随机分为两组,保留胸前神经组和不保留胸前神经组各34例.保留胸前神经组手术时分开胸大肌暴露并保留胸内、外侧神经,不保留胸前神经组则不保留胸内、外侧神经.其余手术操作相同.术后12个月用彩超测量胸大肌厚度,并与对侧比较.结果：保留胸前神经组无重度胸大肌萎缩,不保留胸前神经组重度萎缩26例（76.5%）.经统计学检验,保留胸前神经组重度胸大肌萎缩情况较不保留胸前神经组明显减少（P＜0.01）.结论：改良乳腺癌根治术中保留胸前神经能减少术后胸大肌萎缩.     

Complete axillary lymph node dissection for stage I-II carcinoma of the breast

We reviewed the complete axillary dissection specimens of 136 patients with stage I-II breast cancer to clarify the distribution of axillary lymph node metastases in this disease. Our series included 71 patients undergoing axillary dissection as part of a modified radical mastectomy (MRM) and 65 patients undergoing axillary dissection in conjunction with conservative surgery of the breast and definitive postoperative breast radiotherapy (CAD). These two groups of patients were comparable according to age, menopausal status, tumor size, and clinical stage. In all patients the pectoralis minor muscle was excised and all axillary tissue removed. Each specimen contained a median of 23 lymph nodes. The axillary levels (I, II, III) were determined according to the relationship of axillary tissue to the pectoralis minor muscle (lateral, inferior, medial). Thirty-nine percent of the lymph nodes were contained in level I, 41% in level II, and 20% in level III. There were no significant differences noted in the number of lymph nodes or in the distribution of lymph nodes according to axillary level between dissections performed as part of the MRM or those done as a single procedure (CAD). Sixty-five patients (47.8%) had one or more positive lymph nodes in their axillary specimen. The clinical and pathologic stage was determined and compared for all patients. Among patients judged to have a clinically negative axilla, 37.6% had histologically positive lymph nodes (clinical false-negative rate). For patients with a clinically positive axilla, 11.1% had, histologically, no evidence of metastatic disease (clinical false-positive rate). When the distribution of lymph node metastases according to axillary level was studied, it was found that 29.2% of lymph node-positive patients (or 14.0% of all patients) had metastases only to level II and/or III of the axilla, with level I being negative (skip metastases). This incidence of skip metastases was greater among clinically node-negative than among clinically node-positive patients, but was not related to the size or location of the primary tumor in the breast. In addition, it was found that 20.0% of lymph node-positive patients (or 9.6% of all patients) were converted from three or fewer to four or more positive nodes by analysis of lymph nodes contained in levels II and III. This conversion from three or fewer to four or more positive nodes was due primarily to information contained in level II, with level III contributing to a smaller degree.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Modification of muscle-preserving radical mastectomy.

A technical improvement of the muscle-preserving radical mastectomy for breast cancer is presented. In this procedure, the Sulcus interpectoralis, located between clavicular and sternocostal parts of the pectoralis major muscle, is split bluntly and spread apart. Then, the pectoralis minor muscle is severed near its attachment to the coracoid process and an axillary dissection is thereby easily and thoroughly accomplished. The effectiveness of lymph node dissection by this method was ascertained when the number of the lymph nodes removed by this procedure was compared with that removed by the conventional muscle preserving mastectomy (Madden's operation) and the radical mastectomy. Ninety-three patients treated by this operation have shown a satisfactory cosmetic appearance and a good prognosis when compared with patients treated by the standard radical mastectomy.     

Retrosternal goiter: The need for thoracic approach based on CT findings: Surgeon’s view

Background and purposeThe incidence of retrosternal goiter (RSG) varies from 2% to 26% of all thyroidectomies, depending on the defining criteria. There are no clear guidelines to identify patients that require an intrathoracic approach. So, we tried to correlate, between the size and/or anatomical site of the RSG based on preoperative CT findings and the surgical approaches used, aiming at defining those patients with RSG who are in need for thoracic approach.Patients and methodsOut of 1481 patients underwent thyroidectomy at the National Cancer Institute (NCI), Cairo University, between January 2000 and December 2009, only 73 (4.93%) of them had retrosternal extension. Demographic, clinical, operative, anatomical, and pathological data of patients with RSG were recorded and analyzed.ResultsThe intraoperative extension of the goiter correlated with the extension seen in the CT in all except two patients. Laterality and longitudinal extension found in preoperative CT, correlated well with the surgical findings. The approach used was cervical in 66 cases (90.4%); combined approach in six patients (8.2%). Pure thoracic (full sternotomy) was used alone in one case (1.4%). Extension of the RSG down to or below the arch was associated with an increased risk of using a thoracic approach p < 0.0001.ConclusionPreoperative CT, can be used effectively to guide the indications for using a thoracic approach. Reaching the aortic arch or beyond and loss of fat planes in CT, recurrent and malignant disease, are significant risk factors for using a thoracic approach.