The effects of particulate matter sources on daily mortality: a case-crossover study of Barcelona, Spain

Background: Dozens of studies link acute exposure to particulate matter (PM) air pollution with premature mortality and morbidity, but questions remain about which species and sources in the vast PM mixture are responsible for the observed health effects. Although a few studies exist on the effects of species and sources in U.S. cities, European cities—which have a higher proportion of diesel engines and denser urban populations—have not been well characterized. Information on the effects of specific sources could aid in targeting pollution control and in articulating the biological mechanisms of PM.Objectives: Our study examined the effects of various PM sources on daily mortality for 2003 through 2007 in Barcelona, a densely populated city in the northeast corner of Spain.Methods: Source apportionment for PM ≤ 2.5 μm and ≤ 10 µm in aerodynamic diameter (PM_2.5 and PM₁₀) using positive matrix factorization identified eight different factors. Case-crossover regression analysis was used to estimate the effects of each factor.Results: Several sources of PM_2.5, including vehicle exhaust, fuel oil combustion, secondary nitrate/organics, minerals, secondary sulfate/organics, and road dust, had statistically significant associations (p < 0.05) with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Also, in some cases relative risks for a respective interquartile range increase in concentration were higher for specific sources than for total PM_2.5 mass.Conclusions: These results along with those from our multisource models suggest that traffic, sulfate from shipping and long-range transport, and construction dust are important contributors to the adverse health effects linked to PM.     

Health impacts of particulate matter in five major Estonian towns: main sources of exposure and local differences

Particulate matter (PM) is the major air pollution problem with health impacts in Estonia. The prevailing sources of particles are traffic and local heating. In this study, we quantified the health effects of PM in neighbourhoods of five main cities with a health impact assessment (HIA) approach that uses information on exposure, baseline mortality/morbidity and exposure–response relationships from previous epidemiological studies. The exposure was defined as modelled PM_2.5 annual levels and daily averages of PM₁₀ (monitoring data in Tallinn and Kohtla-Järve and modelled levels in Tartu, Narva and Pärnu). The modelled results were validated with data from monitoring stations and additional measuring programmes. The annual average concentration of PM_2.5 in the neighbourhoods studied varied from 7.6 to 23.6 μg m^?3. The analysis indicated that the exposure above natural background corresponds to 462 [95% confidence interval (CI) 120–815] premature deaths, resulting in 6,034 (95% CI 1,583–10,309) years of life lost per year. The average decrease in life-expectancy at birth per resident of Tallinn was estimated to be 0.63 (95% CI 0.16–1.08) years. In the polluted city centres, this average decrease may reach >1 year and in Pärnu, it may reach 0.95 year. However, in the least polluted neighbourhood, the decrease of life expectancy was only 0.17 years. In addition, 231 (95% CI 145–306) respiratory and 338 (95% CI 205–454) cardiovascular hospitalisations per year could be expected. The majority of the external costs are related to the long-term effects on mortality and amount to ?70 (95% CI 190–350) million annually. In comparison, the costs of hospitalisations contribute just ?.1 (95% CI 0.6–1.6) million. The main differences in health impacts were mostly driven by differences in the pollution sources, the magnitude of such sources and distribution patterns in the atmosphere. The smallest health effects, with the exception of the green residential areas, were observed in the industrial cities Kohtla-Järve and Narva (due to the small share contributed by local residential heating and relatively little car traffic). However, it is questionable whether the mass of fine particles is the best indicator of air pollution risk in such areas.     

Trends and patterns of air quality in Santa Cruz de Tenerife (Canary Islands) in the period 2011–2015

Air quality trends and patterns in the coastal city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain) for the period 2011–2015 were analyzed. The orographic and meteorological characteristics, the proximity to the African continent, and the influence of the Azores anticyclone in combination with the anthropogenic (oil refinery, road/maritime traffic) and natural emissions create specific dispersion conditions. SO₂, NO₂, PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and O₃ pollutants were assessed. The refinery was the primary source of SO₂; EU hourly and daily average limit values were exceeded during 2011 and alert thresholds were reached in 2011 and 2012. WHO daily mean guideline was occasionally exceeded. Annual averages in the three stations that registered the highest concentrations in 2011 and 2012 were between 9.3 and 20.4 μg/m³. The spatial analysis of SO₂ concentrations with respect to prevailing winds corroborates a clear influence of the refinery to the SO₂ levels. In 2014 and 2015, the refinery did not operate and the concentrations fell abruptly to background levels of 2.5–7.1 μg/m³ far below from WHO AQG. NO₂ EU limit values, as well as WHO AQG for the period 2011–2015, were not exceeded. The progressive dieselization of the vehicle fleet caused an increment on NO₂ annual mean concentrations (from 2011 to 2015) measured at two stations close to busy roads 25 to 31 μg/m³ (+21%) and 27 to 35 μg/m³ (+29%). NO _x daily and weekly cycles (working days and weekends) were characterized. An anti-correlation was found between NO _x and O₃, showing that O₃ is titrated by locally emitted NO. Higher O₃ concentrations were reported because less NO _x emitted during the weekends showing a clear weekend effect. Saharan dust intrusions have a significant impact on PM levels. After subtracting natural sources contribution, none of the stations reached the EU maximum 35 yearly exceedances of daily means despite seldom exceedances at some stations. None of the stations exceeded the annual mean EU limit values; however, many stations exceeded the annual mean WHO AQG. Observed PM₁₀ annual average concentrations in all the stations fluctuated between 10.1 and 35.3 μg/m³, where background concentrations were 6.5–24.4 μg/m³ and natural contributions: 4.2–9.1 μg/m³. No PM₁₀ temporal trends were identified during the period except for an effect of washout due to the rain: concentrations were lower in 2013 and 2014 (the most rainy years of the period). None of the stations reached the PM_2.5 annual mean EU 2015 limit value. However, almost all the stations registered daily mean WHO AQG exceedances. During 2015, PM_2.5 concentrations were higher than the previous years (2015, 8.8–12.3 μg/m³; 2011–2014, 3.7–9.6 μg/m³). O₃ complied with EU target values; stricter WHO AQG were sometimes exceeded in all the stations for the whole time period.     

Apheis: Health Impact Assessment of Long-term Exposure to PM2.5 in 23 European Cities

Introduction

Apheis aims to provide European decision makers, environmental-health professionals and the general public with up-to-date and easy-to-use information on air pollution (AP) and public health (PH). In the Apheis-3 phase we quantified the PH impact of long-term exposure to PM_2.5 (particulate matter < 2.5 μm) in terms of attributable number of deaths and the potential gain in life expectancy in 23 European cities.

Methods

We followed the World Health Organization (WHO) methodology for Health Impact Assessment (HIA) and the Apheis guidelines for data collection and analysis. We used the programme created by PSAS-9 for attributable-cases calculations and the WHO software AirQ to estimate the potential gain in life expectancy. For most cities, PM_2.5 levels were calculated from PM₁₀ measurements using a local or European conversion factor.

Results

The HIA estimated that 16,926 premature deaths from all causes, including 11,612 cardiopulmonary deaths and 1901 lung-cancer deaths, could be prevented annually if long-term exposure to PM_2.5 levels were reduced to 15 μg/m³ in each city. Equivalently, this reduction would increase life expectancy at age 30 by a range between one month and more than two years in the Apheis cities.

Conclusions

In addition to the number of attributable cases, our HIA has estimated the potential gain in life expectancy for long-term exposure to fine particles, contributing to a better quantification of the impact of AP on PH in Europe.     

Characteristics of atmospheric trace gases, particulate matter, and heavy metal pollution in Dhaka, Bangladesh

Aerosol particulate matter (PM₁₀ and PM_2.5) and trace gases (SO₂, NO₂, CO and O₃) were sampled at five locations in greater Dhaka, Bangladesh, between January and April 2006. Particulate matter was collected on micro-fiber filters with a low-volume sampler, and trace gases (SO₂, NO₂, and O₃) were collected with an impinger equipped with PM samplers. Carbon monoxide was determined using the Indicator Tube method. The total average concentrations of SO₂, NO₂, CO, and O₃ were 48.3, 21.0, 166.0 and 28 μg m^–3, respectively. The total average concentrations of SO₂ and NO₂ were much lower than the annual average guideline values of the World Health Organization (WHO). The total average O₃ concentration was also much lower than the daily maximum values established by WHO (average of 100 μg m^–3 for an 8-h sample). The total average concentrations of five sites were 263, 75.5 and 66.2 μg m^–3 for SPM, PM₁₀ and PM_2.5, respectively. The mass of PM_2.5 is approximately 88% of the PM₁₀ mass, indicating that fossil fuel is the main source of PM in Dhaka. An atomic absorption spectrophotometer was used to determine the heavy metal concentrations in the PM_2.5 size fraction. The total average concentrations of As, Cd, Cu, Fe, Pb, and Zn in PM_2.5 were 6.3, 13, 94, 433, 204, and 381 ng m^–3, respectively. The Pb concentration in Dhaka shows a decreasing tendency, presumably due to the ban on the use of leaded fuel. The overall trace metal concentrations in Dhaka are higher than those in European (e.g., Spain, Norway) and East Asian (e.g., Taiwan) locations, but lower than those measured in Southeast Asian (Kanpur, Delhi, Mumbai, India; Lahore, Pakistan) cities.     

Association of Heart Rate Variability of the Elderly with Personal Exposure to PM<Subscript>1</Subscript>, PM<Subscript>1–2.5</Subscript>, and PM<Subscript>2.5–10</Subscript>

Environmental epidemiologic studies have shown that elderly people are susceptible to particulate air pollution. The decreases in heart rate variability are important indices of health effect caused by particulate matter. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of submicron particle (PM₁), PM_1–2.5, and coarse particle (PM_2.5–10) on heart rate variability parameters in the elderly. Results of our study indicated that short-term and medium-term PM exposures were associated with the reduction of heart rate variability in the elderly, with stronger effects found for coarse particles in comparison with particles of other size ranges.     

Black carbon as an additional indicator of the adverse health effects of airborne particles compared with PM10 and PM2.5

Background: Current air quality standards for particulate matter (PM) use the PM mass concentration [PM with aerodynamic diameters ≤ 10 μm (PM₁₀) or ≤ 2.5 μm (PM_2.5)] as a metric. It has been suggested that particles from combustion sources are more relevant to human health than are particles from other sources, but the impact of policies directed at reducing PM from combustion processes is usually relatively small when effects are estimated for a reduction in the total mass concentration.Objectives: We evaluated the value of black carbon particles (BCP) as an additional indicator in air quality management.Methods: We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of health effects of BCP compared with PM mass based on data from time-series studies and cohort studies that measured both exposures. We compared the potential health benefits of a hypothetical traffic abatement measure, using near-roadway concentration increments of BCP and PM_2.5 based on data from prior studies.Results: Estimated health effects of a 1-μg/m³ increase in exposure were greater for BCP than for PM₁₀ or PM_2.5, but estimated effects of an interquartile range increase were similar. Two-pollutant models in time-series studies suggested that the effect of BCP was more robust than the effect of PM mass. The estimated increase in life expectancy associated with a hypothetical traffic abatement measure was four to nine times higher when expressed in BCP compared with an equivalent change in PM_2.5 mass.Conclusion: BCP is a valuable additional air quality indicator to evaluate the health risks of air quality dominated by primary combustion particles.     

Indoor and outdoor air quality analysis for the city of Nablus in Palestine: seasonal trends of PM<Subscript>10</Subscript>, PM<Subscript>5.0</Subscript>, PM<Subscript>2.5</Subscript>, and PM<Subscript>1.0</Subscript> of residential homes

Nablus city is an important urban and industrial center in the West Bank, Palestine. The topography of the city, combined with multiple sources of air pollution, creates a potential air quality problem that might affect human health. The indoor and outdoor particle concentration distributions of PM₁₀, PM_5.0, PM_2.5, and PM_1.0 were measured using a Grimm aerosol spectrometer from December 2014 to November 2015, at four roadsides and four urban homes in Nablus. The results of the annual averages of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 concentrations were found to be at least three times higher than that of the European Air Quality Standards both in indoors and outdoors. The difference in the results between both the roadside and the urban areas was attributed to human and industrial activities in Nablus. The results revealed that the highest concentrations of the particulate matters are during summer, especially June and July, in the roadside areas due to heavy industrial activities during these months. The same behavior was noticed for urban areas during summer and due to other human activities. The results of indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratios were found to be less than, but very close to, 1 for both roadside and urban areas in summer and winter months. In winter times, areas with poor ventilation indicated the existence of additional sources of PM within the indoor environments, especially when smoking cigarettes and using fuel-based heaters such as fireplaces gas and kerosene heaters.     

Particulate matter in urban areas of south-central Chile exceeds air quality standards

This study analyzed air quality in terms of the concentrations of sub-10 μm (PM₁₀) and sub-2.5 μm particulate matter (PM_2.5) recorded at 23 automated public monitoring stations located in 16 cities in south-central Chile (Rancagua, Rengo, San Fernando, Curicó, Talca, Maule, Chillán and Chillán Viejo, Gran Concepción, Coronel, Los Ángeles, Temuco and Padre Las Casas, Valdivia, Osorno, Puerto Montt, Coyhaique, and Punta Arenas). In each city, the spatial and temporal distributions of the PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 concentrations were recorded at daily, monthly, and yearly intervals. Air quality was evaluated by comparing the annual average concentrations and the maximum daily concentrations of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 with the World Health Organization (WHO) and national standards. The results showed that the limits established in the WHO guidelines and the national standards were systematically exceeded at all the study sites. The highest concentrations of both PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 were observed during the fall and winter months (April to September), i.e., the cold period of the year, whereas the lowest concentrations were recorded in the spring and summer months (October to March), i.e., the warm period of the year. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the data collected in the warm and cold periods showed that all stations in this study exhibited statistically significant differences between these two periods. During cold periods, burning firewood for heating produces emissions that are a main source of PM. Furthermore, firewood is primarily burned at night when the lowest temperatures occur and when the atmospheric conditions are generally unfavorable for dispersion; thus, pollution accumulates the above cities. The levels of PM_2.5, the most important type of pollution, exceeded the limit established by the WHO on at least one third of the days of the year (>120 days) in the cities of Rancagua, Rengo, Curicó, Talca, Chillan, Los Angeles, Temuco, Valdivia, Osorno, Puerto Montt, and Coyhaique. Therefore in the cities in southern Chile, the population is exposed to particulate matter concentrations that can have negative health impacts. To improve the air quality conditions in the studied cities, research on heaters and combustion techniques should be promoted, home energy efficiency should be increased to reduce firewood consumption, the firewood certification process should be improved at the national level with a better auditing processes, and the introduction of alternative fuels should be considered for greater energy efficiency at competitive costs.     

Indoor air quality in urban and rural kindergartens: short-term studies in Silesia,Poland

More than 80% of people living in urban areas who monitor air pollution are exposed to air quality levels that exceed limits defined by the World Health Organization (WHO). Although all regions of the world are affected, populations in low-income cities are the most impacted. According to average annual levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5, ambient particles with aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 μm or less) presented in the urban air quality database issued by WHO in 2016, as many as 33 Polish cities are among the 50 most polluted cities in the European Union (EU), with Silesian cities topping the list. The aim of this study was to characterize the indoor air quality in Silesian kindergartens based on the concentrations of gaseous compounds (SO₂, NO₂), PM2.5, and the sum of 15 PM2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), including PM2.5-bound benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), as well as the mutagenic activity of PM2.5 organic extracts in Salmonella assay (strains: TA98, YG1024). The assessment of the indoor air quality was performed taking into consideration the pollution of the atmospheric air (outdoor). I/O ratios (indoor/outdoor concentration) for each investigated parameter were also calculated. Twenty-four-hour samples of PM2.5, SO₂, and NO₂ were collected during spring in two sites in southern Poland (Silesia), representing urban and rural areas. Indoor samples were taken in naturally ventilated kindergartens. At the same time, in the vicinity of the kindergarten buildings, the collection of outdoor samples of PM2.5, SO₂, and NO₂ was carried out. The content of BaP and the sum of 15 studied PAHs was determined in each 24-h sample of PM2.5 (indoor and outdoor). In the urban site, statistically lower concentrations of SO₂ and NO₂ were detected indoors compared to outdoors, whereas in the rural site, such a relationship was observed only for NO₂. No statistically significant differences in the concentrations of PM2.5, PM2.5-bound BaP, and Σ15 PAHs in kindergartens (indoor) versus atmospheric (outdoor) air in the two studied areas were identified. Mutagenic effect of indoor PM2.5 samples was twice as low as in outdoor samples. The I/O ratios indicated that all studied air pollutants in the urban kindergarten originated from the ambient air. In the rural site concentrations of SO₂, PM2.5 and BaP in the kindergarten were influenced by internal sources (gas and coal stoves).     

Spatial and seasonal variations of gaseous and particulate matter pollutants in 31 provincial capital cities,China

In order to know air pollution situation and their health, environmental, and climate effects, the air quality data with high temporal and spatial resolutions are essential. The spatial and seasonal variations of six criteria pollutants were investigated in 31 provincial capital cities between April 2014 and March 2015 using hourly mean air quality monitoring data, and the cities were classified by cluster analysis based on annual variations of air pollutants. The annual mean concentrations of PM_2.5 (particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm) and PM₁₀ (particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than 10 μm) were high for all cities, which exceeded Chinese Ambient Air Quality Standards (CAAQS) Grade I standards. Only Fuzhou, Haikou, Kunming, and Lasa met Grade II standards for PM_2.5 and PM₁₀. Additionally, elevated SO₂ concentration was observed in northern cities, especially in winter. However, the seasonal variation of O₃ was opposite to other pollutants with the lowest concentrations in the winter and the highest in the summer. Winter domestic heating has significant impact on urban air quality, especially SO₂ and PM₁₀.     

Is particulate air pollution associated with health and health inequalities in New Zealand?

Air pollution can increase mortality risk and may also exacerbate socioeconomic inequalities in health outcomes. This New Zealand study investigated whether exposure to particulate air pollution (PM₁₀) was associated with mortality and health inequalities. Annual mean PM₁₀ estimates for urban Census Area Units (CAUs) were linked to cause-specific mortality data. A dose-response relationship was found between PM₁₀ and respiratory disease mortality, including at concentrations below the existing annual average guideline value of 20 μg m⁻³. Establishing and enforcing a lower guideline value is likely to have population health benefits. However, socioeconomic inequalities in respiratory disease mortality were not significantly elevated with PM₁₀ exposure.     

Air pollution and population health: a global challenge

“Air pollution and population health” is one of the most important environmental and public health issues. Economic development, urbanization, energy consumption, transportation/motorization, and rapid population growth are major driving forces of air pollution in large cities, especially in megacities. Air pollution levels in developed countries have been decreasing dramatically in recent decades. However, in developing countries and in countries in transition, air pollution levels are still at relatively high levels, though the levels have been gradually decreasing or have remained stable during rapid economic development. In recent years, several hundred epidemiological studies have emerged showing adverse health effects associated with short-term and long-term exposure to air pollutants. Time-series studies conducted in Asian cities also showed similar health effects on mortality associated with exposure to particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and ozone (O₃) to those explored in Europe and North America. The World Health Organization (WHO) published the “WHO Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs), Global Update” in 2006. These updated AQGs provide much stricter guidelines for PM, NO₂, SO₂ and O₃. Considering that current air pollution levels are much higher than the WHO-recommended AQGs, interim targets for these four air pollutants are also recommended for member states, especially for developing countries in setting their country-specific air quality standards. In conclusion, ambient air pollution is a health hazard. It is more important in Asian developing countries within the context of pollution level and population density. Improving air quality has substantial, measurable and important public health benefits.     

Mass size distribution and chemical composition of the surface layer of summer and winter airborne particles in Zabrze, Poland

Mass size distributions of ambient aerosol were measured in Zabrze, a heavily industrialized city of Poland, during a summer and a winter season. The chemical analyses of the surface layer of PM₁₀, PM_2.5 and PM₁ in this area were also performed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Results suggested that the influence of an atmospheric aerosol on the health condition of Zabrze residents can be distinctly stronger in winter than in summer because of both: higher concentration level of particulate matter (PM) and higher contribution of fine particles in winter season compared to summer. In Zabrze in June (summer) PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 reached about 20 and 14 μg/m³, respectively, while in December (winter) 57 and 51 μg/m³, respectively. The XPS analysis showed that elemental carbon is the major surface component of studied airborne particles representing about 78%–80% (atomic mass) of all detected elements.     

Induction of IL-6 and inhibition of IL-8 secretion in the human airway cell line Calu-3 by urban particulate matter collected with a modified method of PM sampling

Exposure to particulate matter (PM) induces inflammatory cytokines. In the present study, we evaluated the secretion of IL-6 and IL-8 by an airway cell line exposed to PM with a mean aerodynamic size equal to or less than 10 or 2.5 μm (PM₁₀ and PM_2.5, respectively) collected in Mexico City, using a modified high-volume sampling method avoiding the use of solvents or introducing membrane components into the samples. PM was collected on cellulose-nitrate (CN) membranes modified for collection on high-volume samplers. Composition of the particles was evaluated by particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) and scanning electron microscopy. The particles (10-160 μg/cm²) were tested on Calu-3 cells. Control cultures were exposed to LPS (10 ng/mL to 100 μg/mL) or silica (10-160 μg/cm²). IL-6 and IL-8 secretions were evaluated by ELISA. An average of 10 mg of PM was recovered form each cellulose-nitrate filter. No evidence of contamination from the filter was found. Cells exposed to PM₁₀ presented an increase in the secretion of IL-6 (up to 400%), while IL-8 decreased (from 40% to levels below the detection limit). A similar but weaker effect was observed with PM_2.5. In conclusion, our modified sampling method provides a large amount of urban PM free of membrane contamination. The urban particles induce a decrease in IL-8 secretion that contrasts with the LPS and silica effects. These results suggest that the regulation of IL-8 expression is different for urban particles (complex mixture containing combustion-related particles, soil and biologic components) than for biogenic compounds or pure mineral particles.     

Levels of PM<Subscript>10</Subscript>-bound species in Belgrade,Serbia: spatio-temporal distributions and related human health risk estimation

The aim of this study was to identify levels of population health risk caused by the inhalation of PM₁₀-bound species in an urban area. A combination of multiple location measurements, several analytical tools, and cancer and non-cancer health risk assessment was used to evaluate influences of proximate anthropogenic activities and air pollution transport. The concentrations of PM₁₀, six trace metals (As, Cd, Cr, Mn, Ni and Pb) and benzo[a]pyrene were measured at 15 air quality monitoring stations during the period 2011–2015 in a wide area of Belgrade (Serbia). Significant population health risk was estimated as a result of exposure to particulate air pollution. The concentrations of PM₁₀, As, Ni and benzo[a]pyrene exceeded the EU Directive limit and target values. Of all the analysed species, Cr was the major contributor to carcinogenic health risk. Besides strong local sources related to traffic and industry, the influence of transported pollution is estimated in the range 8.95–36.07 %, with potentially the most important sources being located in East and West Europe.     

Long-Term Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution and Incidence of Cerebrovascular Events: Results from 11 European Cohorts within the ESCAPE Project

Background: Few studies have investigated effects of air pollution on the incidence of cerebrovascular events.Objectives: We assessed the association between long-term exposure to multiple air pollutants and the incidence of stroke in European cohorts.Methods: Data from 11 cohorts were collected, and occurrence of a first stroke was evaluated. Individual air pollution exposures were predicted from land-use regression models developed within the European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects (ESCAPE). The exposures were: PM_2.5 [particulate matter (PM) ≤ 2.5 μm in diameter], coarse PM (PM between 2.5 and 10 μm), PM₁₀ (PM ≤ 10 μm), PM_2.5 absorbance, nitrogen oxides, and two traffic indicators. Cohort-specific analyses were conducted using Cox proportional hazards models. Random-effects meta-analysis was used for pooled effect estimation.Results: A total of 99,446 study participants were included, 3,086 of whom developed stroke. A 5-μg/m³ increase in annual PM_2.5 exposure was associated with 19% increased risk of incident stroke [hazard ratio (HR) = 1.19, 95% CI: 0.88, 1.62]. Similar findings were obtained for PM₁₀. The results were robust to adjustment for an extensive list of cardiovascular risk factors and noise coexposure. The association with PM_2.5 was apparent among those ≥ 60 years of age (HR = 1.40, 95% CI: 1.05, 1.87), among never-smokers (HR = 1.74, 95% CI: 1.06, 2.88), and among participants with PM_2.5 exposure < 25 μg/m³ (HR = 1.33, 95% CI: 1.01, 1.77).Conclusions: We found suggestive evidence of an association between fine particles and incidence of cerebrovascular events in Europe, even at lower concentrations than set by the current air quality limit value.Citation: Stafoggia M, Cesaroni G, Peters A, Andersen ZJ, Badaloni C, Beelen R, Caracciolo B, Cyrys J, de Faire U, de Hoogh K, Eriksen KT, Fratiglioni L, Galassi C, Gigante B, Havulinna AS, Hennig F, Hilding A, Hoek G, Hoffmann B, Houthuijs D, Korek M, Lanki T, Leander K, Magnusson PK, Meisinger C, Migliore E, Overvad K, Östenson CG, Pedersen NL, Pekkanen J, Penell J, Pershagen G, Pundt N, Pyko A, Raaschou-Nielsen O, Ranzi A, Ricceri F, Sacerdote C, Swart WJ, Turunen AW, Vineis P, Weimar C, Weinmayr G, Wolf K, Brunekreef B, Forastiere F. 2014. Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and incidence of cerebrovascular events: results from 11 European cohorts within the ESCAPE project. Environ Health Perspect 122:919–925; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307301     

Health benefits of a reduction of PM10 and NO2 exposure after implementing a clean air plan in the Agglomeration Lausanne-Morges

Exposure to urban air pollution has been associated with adverse effects on cardio-vascular and respiratory health, both short and long term. Consequently, governments have applied policies to reduce air pollution. Quantitative health impact assessments of hypothetic changes in air pollution have been conducted at national and global level, but assessments of observed air pollution changes associated with specific clean air policies at a local or regional scale remain scarce. This study estimates health impacts attributable to a decrease in PM₁₀ and NO₂ exposure in the Agglomeration of Lausanne-Morges (ALM), Switzerland, between 2005 and 2015, corresponding to the implementation period of a supra-municipal plan of measures to reduce air pollution in different sectors such as transport, energy, and industry (called Plan OPair 05). The health impact assessment compares health effects attributed to air pollution exposure levels in 2015 (reference case) with those in 2005 (counterfactual scenario), using 2015 as baseline for all other input data.In the ALM, the modeled PM₁₀ exposure reduction of 3.3 μg/m³ from 2005 to 2015 prevents 26 premature deaths (equivalent to around 290 years of life lost), 215 hospitalization days due to cardio-vascular and respiratory diseases as well as approximately 47,000 restricted activity days annually. Monetized health impacts of the reduction of PM₁₀ exposure are valued at approximately CHF 36 million annually. Immaterial costs, mainly related to the economic valuation of years of life lost, dominate the monetized health impacts (90% of total value), while savings at the workplace (net loss in production and reoccupation costs) amount to about CHF 1.9 million, and savings in health care costs to about CHF 0.5 million. The assessment is sensitive to the value assigned to immaterial costs and to uncertainties in the relative risk estimates, whereas variations in the baseline year (i.e. using 2005 data instead of 2015 data) affect results to a much lower degree. The alternative calculation based on NO₂ exposure, which dropped by 5.6 μg/m³, suggests the prevention of 51 premature deaths (equivalent to around 550 years of life lost) overall impacts valued at CHF 49 million. All in all, the reduction in mortality due to the air quality improvements accounts for (depending on the considered pollutant) about 1% to 2% of total all-cause annual mortality in the ALM population or 4–8 times larger than the annual traffic fatalities in the ALM.     

Source emissions and health impacts of urban air pollution in Hyderabad,India

The source apportionment study in Hyderabad listed transportation, industries, and waste burning as critical sources of particulate matter (PM) pollution in the city. In this paper, we present sector-specific emissions for 2010–2011 for the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation region, accounting for 42,600 t of PM₁₀ (PM size <10 μm), 24,500 t of PM_2.5 (PM size <2.5 μm), 11,000 t of sulfur dioxide, 127,000 t of nitrogen oxides, 431,000 t of carbon monoxide, 113,400 t of non-methane volatile organic compounds, and 25.2 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions. The inventory is spatially disaggregated at 0.01° resolution on a GIS platform, for use in a chemical transport model (ATMoS). The modeled concentrations for the urban area are 105.2?±?28.6 μg/m³ for PM₁₀ and 72.6?±?18.0 μg/m³ for PM_2.5, when overlaid on gridded population, resulted in estimated 3,700 premature deaths and 280,000 asthma attacks for 2010–2011. The analysis shows that aggressive pollution control measures are imperative to control pollution in Hyderabad and reduce excess exposure levels on the roads and in the residential areas. The planning and implementation of measures like advancing the public transportation systems, integrating the road and metro-rail services, promotion of walking and cycling, introduction of cleaner brick production technologies, encouraging efficient technologies for the old and the new industries, and better waste management systems to control garbage burning need to take priority, as these measures are expected to result in health benefits, which surpass any of the institutional, technical, and economic costs.     

Explaining the high PM<Subscript>10</Subscript> concentrations observed in Polish urban areas

The main goal of this paper is to identify the drivers responsible for the high particulate matter concentrations observed in recent years in several urban areas in Poland. The problem was investigated using air quality and meteorological data from routine monitoring network, air mass back trajectories and multivariate statistical modelling. Air pollution in central and southern part of the country was analysed and compared with this in northern-eastern “The Green Lungs of Poland” region. The analysis showed that in all investigated locations, there is a clear annual cycle of observed concentrations, closely following temperature-heating cycles, with the highest concentrations noted in January. However, the main drivers differ along the country, being either connected with regional background pollution (in the central part of the country) or with local emission sources (in the southern part). The occurrence of high PM₁₀ concentrations is most commonly associated with the influence of high-pressure systems that brought extremely cold and stable air masses form East or South of Europe. During analysed episodes, industrial point sources had the biggest (up to 70–80 %) share in PM₁₀ levels on the days with maximum PM pollution, while remote and residential/traffic sources determined the air quality in the early stages of the episodes. Principal component analysis (PCA) shows that secondary inorganic aerosols account for long-range transported pollution, As, Cd, Pb and Zn for industrial point sources, while Cr and Cu for residential and traffic sources of PM₁₀, respectively.