垂体腺瘤的显微外科治疗

目的探讨外科治疗垂体腺瘤显微手术方法的选择。方法对CT或MRI证实的65例垂体腺瘤，采用经蝶入路或经翼点入路两种手术方法，在显微镜下切除肿瘤。结果经蝶手术44例，全切除29例，次全切除15例；无1例死亡。经翼点入路显微手术21例，全切除13例，次全切5例，部分切除3例；死亡1例(死于多器官功能衰竭)。结论采用显微外科技术，针对肿瘤的特点选择不同的手术入路是提高垂体腺瘤全切率、降低死亡率的关键。     

显微外科治疗大及巨大垂体腺瘤手术入路的探讨

目的 探讨显微外科治疗大及巨大垂体腺瘤手术方法的选择。方法 对CT或MRI证实的56例大及巨大垂体腺瘤，采用经蝶入路或经颅入路两种手术方法，在显微镜下切除肿瘤。结果 经蝶手术18例，全切除12例，次全切除6例，无一例死亡。经颅采用翼点或经额入路显微手术治疗38例，经额手术25例，全切除22例，次全切2例，部分切除1例，其中1例死亡．原因不明；经翼点13例，全切除10例，次全切2例，部分切除1例，无一例死亡。结论 采用显微外科技术，针对肿瘤的特点选择不同的手术入路是提高垂体腺瘤全切率、降低死亡率的关键。     

影响巨大垂体腺瘤手术疗效的几个问题探讨

目的 介绍56例巨大垂体腺瘤显微外科手术治疗经验，探讨影响手术疗效的几个问题。方法 回顾性分析56例巨大垂体腺瘤病人的临床资料。据肿瘤的生长方向及部位分为四型，据此分别采用经蝶、经额下、额下经蝶、扩大经蝶、扩大额下硬膜外、额下一翼点等10种入路进行显微手术。重点介绍手术入路的选择及注意事项。结果 56例巨大垂体腺瘤全切29例，近全切20例，大部分切除7例，无死亡。结论 依据巨大垂体腺瘤的不同位置及生长方向选择适当的手术入路、掌握手术时机以及术后辅以放疗是提高手术疗效的重要手段。     

经蝶显微手术治疗垂体巨腺瘤

目的介绍1984年至2001年经蝶入路切除206例巨大垂体腺瘤的手术操作技术和经验。方法 206例巨大垂体腺瘤患，男性121例，女性85例，采用经蝶显微外科手术。结果 本组患肿瘤全切除137例，次全切除44例，大部切除25例，其中死亡2例。结论 对巨大垂体腺瘤而言，经蝶窦显微外科手术不但比经颅手术安全，而且切除范围也比经颅手术彻底，对视觉功能的改善更优于经颅手术。     

垂体肿瘤91例临床分析

目的 探讨垂体腺瘤外科手术治疗方法及经验。方法 对85例垂体腺瘤，据肿瘤的大小分别采用经蝶，经额下，经翼点三种手术入路，并在显微镜下实施手术治疗。结果 85例垂体腺瘤全切78例。近全切8例。大部切除2例；无死亡，术后一年随访，复发6例。结论 大型垂体腺瘤因部分质韧，与周围粘连，经翼点手术是提高全切率，降低复发率，减少副损伤及并发症的有效方法。     

内窥镜辅助经蝶窦入路切除垂体腺瘤

目的总结内窥镜辅助经蝶入路切除垂体腺癌的初步经验。方法内窥镜辅助下经蝶入路切除垂体腺瘤36例。结果24例全切除,12例次全切除,5例发生短暂性多尿,2例脑脊液漏,术后1～2周内恢复正常。结论内窥镜可以很好显露鞍内、鞍旁及鞍上肿瘤,可以更完全、更安全地切除肿瘤。     

大型垂体腺瘤的显微手术治疗

目的 研究大型垂体腺瘤的显微外科治疗结果,探讨其治疗方法和策略.方法 回顾2006年6月至2012年6月收治的垂体腺瘤病例,对56例直径超过3cm的垂体腺瘤的临床及影像学资料、手术入路及显微操作技术、辅助放疗和药物治疗结果进行分析总结.结果 经鼻蝶窦入路40例,经颅入路16例.肿瘤全切27例,次全切25例,部分切除4例.随访获得全切患者仅2例,2年后复发.未能全切除的29例患者中,动态观察无明显生长者9例,余20例行普通放疗者7例,伽玛刀治疗者13例,影像学复查肿瘤渐缩小或不增大.结论 多数大型垂体腺瘤可首选经鼻蝶窦入路显微外科手术治疗.能否全切取决于肿瘤的质地和是否侵袭海绵窦.广泛侵袭海绵窦的巨大、分叶、多方向生长的垂体腺瘤,分期手术或结合放射治疗、药物治疗为较佳选择.     

神经内窥镜及导航辅助下经单鼻蝶垂体腺瘤显微切除术(附27例临床分析)

目的探讨神经内窥镜和导航技术结合应用于垂体腺瘤显微切除的效果。方法在神经内窥镜和导航辅助下经鼻蝶入路显微切除27例垂体腺瘤,其中垂体微腺瘤2例,小腺瘤3例,大腺瘤18例和巨大腺瘤4例。结果肿瘤全切的17例,次全切7例,部分切除3例。结论神经内窥镜和导航技术结合应用于垂体腺瘤显微切除,术中定位准确,视野清晰,损伤小,提高了肿瘤的切除程度,术后恢复快,减少了手术的并发症,是垂体腺瘤手术治疗的较佳手段。     

老年性垂体腺瘤50例临床分析

目的探讨老年性垂体腺瘤的临床诊断和手术治疗特点。方法回顾性分析8年间50例老年垂体腺瘤患者的手术资料,其中11例采用经额手术,39例采用经蝶手术。结果肿瘤全切23例,次全切除15例,大部切除12例。结论对于有视力障碍的老年垂体腺瘤病例应采用手术治疗,尤其是经蝶入路切除垂体腺瘤,具有良好的耐受,高龄已经不再是禁忌证。     

非分泌性垂体腺瘤的显微外科手术策略

目的 探讨非分泌性垂体腺瘤治疗的显微外科手术策略。方法 回顾分析经手术证实的236例非分泌性垂体腺瘤的临床资料，采取四种显微手术策略：经蝶手术202例（85．59％），开颅手术15例（6．36％），经蝶＋开颅手术11例（4．66％），分次经蝶手术8例（3.39％）。结果 显微手术全切除171例（72．46％），次全切除65例（27．64％）。无同手术期严重并发症，视力视野改进占88．02%。甲状腺功能恢复正常占38．98％，血清催乳素水平恢复正常占70．63％。免疫组化研究提示促性腺激素细胞腺瘤占52．54％，裸细胞腺瘤占25．00％，大嗜酸粒细胞腺瘤占14．41％，静态促肾上腺皮质激素腺瘤占8．05％。结论 对于非分泌性垂体腺瘤，根据个性化的原则，采取不同的显微外科手术策略．可以取得满意的疗效。     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Neonatal Seizures: Problems in Diagnosis and Classification

Summary: The clinical identification of neonatal seizures is critical for the recognition of brain dysfunction; however, diagnosis is often difficult because of the poorly organized and varied nature of these behaviors. Current classification systems are limited in their ability to communicate motor, autonomic, and electroencephalo-graphic features of seizures precisely and to provide a basis for uniform effective diagnosis, therapy, and determination of prognosis. Recent investigations of neonates, utilizing bedside electroencephalographic/polygraphic/ video monitoring techniques, have provided the basis for improved diagnosis and classification of seizures in the newborn. These studies have demonstrated that not all clinical phenomena currently considered to be seizures require electrocortical epileptiform activity for their initiation or elaboration. In addition, the specific clinical character of the phenomena considered to be seizures, the clinical state of the infant, and the character of the EEG indicate the probable pathophysiological mechanisms involved and suggest probable etiologies, prognosis, and therapy. Similarities between animal models that demonstrate reflex physiology and neonates with motor automatisms and tonic posturing suggest that these clinical behaviors may not be epileptic in origin but, rather, primitive movements of progression and posture mediated by brainstem mechanisms. Although not all clinical behaviors currently considered to be neonatal seizures may have similar pathophysiological mechanisms, they are clinically significant because they all indicate brain dysfunction.     

Valproate Monotherapy in the Management of Generalized and Partial Seizures

Summary: For decades, therapeutic tradition has promoted the concept of polypharmacy in the management of epilepsy. In recent years, however, studies have shown that, for most patients, monotherapy can provide comparable or better seizure control than administration of multiple anticonvulsants, while diminishing the potential for adverse reactions, drug interactions, and poor compliance. Valproate is an important monotherapeutic agent that is highly effective in the control of idiopathic primary and secondarily generalized epilepsies, and partial seizures that do not generalize. Comparative studies have found that valproate is at least as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in the treatment of generalized and partial seizures. Given the similar efficacy, other factors such as pharmacokinetics and side effects may therefore determine anticonvulsant selection for monotherapy.     

Un nouveau cadre conceptuel de travail pour la psychiatrie

In an attempt to place psychiatric thinking and the training of future psychiatrists more centrally into the context of modern biology, the author outlines the beginnings of a new intellectual framework for psychiatry that derives from current biological thinking about the relationship of mind to brain. The purpose of this framework is twofold. First, it is designed to emphasize that the professional requirements for future psychiatrists will demand a greater knowledge of the structure and functioning of the brain than is currently available in most training programs. Second, it is designed to illustrate that the unique domain which psychiatry occupies within academic medicine, the analysis of the interaction between social and biological determinants of behavior, can best be studied by also having a full understanding of the biological components of behavior.