Salivary testosterone and creative musical behavior in adolescent males and females

In a longitudinal study, salivary testosterone levels were assessed in 3 subsequent years in adolescent boys and girls who had documented creative musical talent in their early teens. Decrease of creative musical behavior in adolescent boys was attributed, inter alia, to a testosterone increase exceeding a hypothesized optimal testosterone range for the expression of creative musical behavior. Left‐handers, especially left‐handed boys, were superior to righthanders on a test measuring musical talent. Testosterone levels did not differ between the handedness groups. Sex differences in salivary testosterone were not observed by a mean age of 13.5. Age was more important than mutation in boys and menarche in girls with respect to testosterone rises during puberty. Circadian rhythm in salivary testosterone levels was found in both sexes.     

Salivary testosterone and body composition among Ariaal males

To determine if testosterone is negatively related to acute and/or chronic nutritional status among men in a subsistence society, saliva samples and anthropometric measures were compared among nomadic and settled Ariaal pastoralists of northern Kenya. Fifty‐six nomadic men and 62 settled men facing drought conditions, estimated ages 22–96 years, were sampled. Measures included height, weight, four skinfolds, and %body fat by bioelectric impedance (BIA). Saliva samples were assayed for testosterone using radioimmunoassay. Overall, both body mass index (BMI) (avg. = 17.8 ± 6.0 kg/m²) and salivary testosterone (T) levels (avg. am value = 176.8 ± 74.8 pmol/l) were low compared to values from Western populations. Comparison of the two subpopulations revealed no significant difference in height, weight, BMI, or lean body mass. However, nomadic males exhibited significantly smaller skinfolds. Evening, but not morning, salivary T values differed between the subpopulations. Age‐related changes in body composition included a significant decline in BMI with age, related to loss of body fat, but with little change in lean body mass. Age‐related declines in BMI and %body fat were more pronounced among the nomadic males. am salivary T values declined with age; again, the decline was significantly greater among nomadic males. pm salivary T levels showed no significant decline with age. When controlled for residence and age, salivary T was positively related to %body fat and WHR ratio, but not lean body mass. These results provide evidence that salivary T is related to acute nutritional status among males in an energetically stressed subsistence population, in accordance with life history theories of somatic allocation. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 15:697–708, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Stroke: understanding the differences between males and females

Stroke is a significant cause of death and long-term disability in the USA. The incidence, mortality, and outcomes of stroke are significantly different between men and women. As with many diseases that affect men and women differently, an understanding on the reasons underlying those differences is critical to effective diagnosis and treatment. This review will examine the sex differences in stroke in both humans and animal models of stroke and review what is known about potential mechanisms underlying these differences. It is clear that there is a complex interaction between hormonal, genetic, and unknown factors at play in generating the sex differences in stroke.     

The development of psychopathology in females and males: current progress and future challenges

In recent years, the role of gender in the development of psychopathology has increasingly attracted the attention of researchers, theoreticians, and other professionals interested in the well-being of children and adolescents. This interest has taken diverse forms, ranging from the examination of sex differences in the prevalence of adjustment difficulties to the exploration of unique etiologies and trajectories in the development of psychopathology for boys versus girls. In this paper we (a) critically examine the current status of available theories, research, and methods related to the study of gender and psychopathology and provide recommendations for future work; (b) identify promising new trends that appear to have utility for enhancing our understanding of the role of gender in the development of adjustment difficulties; and (c) generate conclusions regarding gender and psychopathology by integrating information from past and present work with new ideas about fruitful directions for future inquiry.     

Circulating testosterone levels and aggression in adolescent males: a causal analysis

Empirical analyses conducted within a causal-analytic framework (path analysis) on a sample of normal adolescent human males suggested that circulating levels of testosterone in the blood had a direct causal influence on provoked aggressive behavior (self-reports): A high level of testosterone led to an increased readiness to respond vigorously and assertively to provocations and threats. Testosterone also had an indirect and weaker affect on another aggression dimension: High levels of testosterone made the boys more impatient and irritable, which in turn increased their propensity to engage in aggressive-destructive behavior. Two somewhat parallel dimensions of behavior, intermale and irritable aggression, have been identified in animal research to be under testosterone control.     

A developmental psychopathology perspective on child and adolescent treatment policy

This article considers the implications of theory and research in developmental psychopathology for existing and emerging social policy concerning treatment of child and adolescent psychopathology. Based on the concept that all psychopathology is a process, four core principles of a developmental psychopathology perspective are discussed. In turn, each is applied to an evaluation of policy issues with implications for intervention, including mental health parity, treatment guidelines, mental health reimbursement, and level of intervention. It is concluded that social policy on treatment must be based on an empirically supported theory of developmental psychopathology and on evidence-based interventions that link treatments to pathogenic processes.     

Salivary testosterone levels in males from the Ituri Forest of Zaïre

Morning and evening testosterone levels were measured in the saliva of Efe pygmies (N = 11) and Lese villagers (N = 18) living in the Ituri Forest of northeast Zaïre and compared with levels in Boston controls (N = 10). With one exception, levels in the individual Zaïrois subjects fall within the normal ranges reported for Western clinical populations. Daily variation in the Zaïrois subjects (a.m./p.m. ratio = 1.32 for Efe, 1.22 for Lese) is also comparable to both the Boston controls (1.61) and values reported by other researchers for Western subjects. Average morning levels for the Zairois subjects (420 pmol/liter for Efe, 341 pmol/liter for Lese), however, fall significantly below the average for the Boston subjects (589 pmol/liter; Efe, P <0.05; Lese, P <0.01). A correlation between morning testosterone level and height is observed for the Lese sample (r=0.76, P <0.005). Similar correlations have not been reported for Western subjects. Possible roles of acute and chronic environmental conditions in generating these observations are noted. This study demonstrates the potential utility of salivary steroid assays for investigating questions related to male gonadal function under field conditions.     

Core temperature differences between males and females during intermittent exercise: physical considerations

We examined differences in dynamic heat balance between males and females during intermittent exercise. Six males (M) and six females (F) performed three 30-min bouts of exercise (Ex1, Ex2, Ex3) at a constant rate of metabolic heat production () of ~500 W separated by three 15-min periods of inactive recovery. Rate of total heat loss () was measured by direct calorimetry, while was determined by indirect calorimetry. Esophageal (T _es) was measured continuously. Exercise at a constant of ~500 W, was paralleled by a similar between sexes at the end of Ex1 (M: 462 ± 30 W, F: 442 ± 9 W, p = 0.117), Ex2 (M: 468 ± 28 W, F: 508 ± 18 W, p = 0.343), and Ex3 (M: 469 ± 17 W, F: 465 ± 13 W, p = 0.657). Consequently, changes in body heat content were comparable after Ex1 (M: 218 ± 21 kJ, F: 287 ± 35 kJ, p = 0.134), Ex2 (M: 109 ± 18 kJ, F: 158 ± 29 kJ, p = 0.179), and Ex3 (M: 92 ± 19 kJ, F: 156 ± 35 kJ, p = 0.136). However, females had greater overall increases in T _es at the end of Ex3 (M: 0.55 ± 0.25°C, F: 0.97 ± 0.26°C, p ≤ 0.05). Differences in core temperature between sexes appear to be solely related to differences in physical characteristics, and not due to concurrent differences in whole-body thermoregulatory responses.     

Introduction to the special section on clinical adolescent psychology: developmental psychopathology and treatment

This article addresses implications of the interface between developmental psychology and clinical psychology for research on adolescence and describes the importance of considering developmental level when designing treatments for adolescent patients. In addition, the articles that constitute the special section, "Clinical Adolescent Psychology: Developmental Psychopathology and Treatment," are introduced.     

Sex-specific gray matter volume differences in females with developmental dyslexia

Developmental dyslexia, characterized by unexpected reading difficulty, is associated with anomalous brain anatomy and function. Previous structural neuroimaging studies have converged in reports of less gray matter volume (GMV) in dyslexics within left hemisphere regions known to subserve language. Due to the higher prevalence of dyslexia in males, these studies are heavily weighted towards males, raising the question whether studies of dyslexia in females only and using the same techniques, would generate the same findings. In a replication study of men, we obtained the same findings of less GMV in dyslexics in left middle/inferior temporal gyri and right postcentral/supramarginal gyri as reported in the literature. However, comparisons in women with and without dyslexia did not yield left hemisphere differences, and instead, we found less GMV in right precuneus and paracentral lobule/medial frontal gyrus. In boys, we found less GMV in left inferior parietal cortex (supramarginal/angular gyri), again consistent with previous work, while in girls differences were within right central sulcus, spanning adjacent gyri, and left primary visual cortex. Our investigation into anatomical variants in dyslexia replicates existing studies in males, but at the same time shows that dyslexia in females is not characterized by involvement of left hemisphere language regions but rather early sensory and motor cortices (i.e., motor and premotor cortex, primary visual cortex). Our findings suggest that models on the brain basis of dyslexia, primarily developed through the study of males, may not be appropriate for females and suggest a need for more sex-specific investigations into dyslexia.     

Risk models of dating aggression across different adolescent relationships: a developmental psychopathology approach

The present study examined physical dating aggression in different adolescent relationships and assessed linear, threshold, and moderator risk models for recurrent aggressive relationships. The 621 participants (59% girls, 41% boys) were drawn from a 1-year longitudinal survey of Canadian high school youths ranging from Grade 9 through Grade 12. Approximately 13% of participants reported recurrent dating aggression across 2 different relationships. Using peer and dyadic risk factors from Time 1 of the study, the authors confirmed a linear risk model, such that adolescents in 2 different violent relationships had significantly more contextual risk factors than did adolescents in 1 or no violent relationship. Further, structural equation modeling assessing moderation of contextual risk factors indicated that, for adolescents with high acceptance of dating aggression, peer aggression and delinquency significantly predicted recurrent aggression in a new relationship. In comparison, for adolescents with low acceptance of dating aggression, negative relationship characteristics significantly predicted recurrent aggression. Acceptance did not moderate concurrent associations between risk factors and aggression in 1 relationship. Results support a developmental psychopathological approach to the understanding of recurrent aggression and its associated risk factors.     

Seasonal variation in testosterone and performance in males of a non-territorial lizard species

The ability to perform key behaviors, particularly those associated with reproduction, has been linked to reproductive success. However, it remains unclear as to which underlying mechanisms govern variation in the performance capacities of these behaviors. Due to its ability to mediate physiological and morphological changes, the steroid hormone testosterone has been hypothesized to influence performance. This hypothesis, however, has not been tested in a broad range of taxa or mating systems. In this study, seasonal patterns of bite force and locomotor performance were quantified concurrently with circulating testosterone levels in males of a non-territorial polygynous lizard species (Aspidoscelis sexlineata). Bite force and one measure of locomotor performance were significantly greater in the breeding season than in the post-breeding season, and this seasonal variation in performance was correlated with seasonal changes in testosterone levels. These results suggest that the performance capacities of behaviors important for acquiring mating opportunities in this species are maximized during the breeding season by elevated testosterone levels.     

Copy number variation and neuropsychiatric problems in females and males in the general population

Neurodevelopmental problems (NPs) are more common in males, whereas anxiety and depression are more common in females. Rare copy number variants (CNVs) have been implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders. The aim of this study was to characterize the relationship between rare CNVs with NPs, anxiety, and depression in a childhood population sample, as well as to examine sex‐specific effects. We analyzed a sample of N = 12,982 children, of whom 5.3% had narrowly defined NPs (clinically diagnosed), 20.9% had broadly defined NPs (based on validated screening measures, but no diagnosis), and 3.0% had clinically diagnosed anxiety or depression. Rare (<1% frequency) CNVs were categorized by size (100–500 kb or > 500 kb), type, and putative relevance to NPs. We tested for association of CNV categories with outcomes and examined sex‐specific effects. Medium deletions (OR[CI] = 1.18[1.05–1.33], p = .0053) and large duplications (OR[CI] = 1.45[1.19–1.75], p = .00017) were associated with broadly defined NPs. Large deletions (OR[CI] = 1.85[1.14–3.01], p = .013) were associated with narrowly defined NPs. There were no significant sex differences in CNV burden in individuals with NPs. Although CNVs were not associated with anxiety/depression in the whole sample, in individuals diagnosed with these disorders, females were more likely to have large CNVs (OR[CI] = 3.75[1.45–9.68], p = .0064). Rare CNVs are associated with both narrowly and broadly defined NPs in a general population sample of children. Our results also suggest that large, rare CNVs may show sex‐specific phenotypic effects.     

Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: measurement issues and prospective effects.

This article reviews existing research on the association between stressors and symptoms of psychopathology in children and adolescents with a focus on measurement issues and prospective effects. The first half of the article focuses on the measurement of stressors, emphasizing checklists and interviews. Available measures of stressful experiences are reviewed and critiqued. Results of this review reveal both substantial progress (i.e., development of valid stressor assessment tools) and remaining problems (i.e., inconsistent measurement across studies). The second half of this article reviews studies that have tested for prospective associations between stressors and symptoms of psychopathology in children and adolescents. Studies that have examined the prospective effects of recent or prior stressors on current psychological symptoms, while controlling for prior psychological symptoms, are reviewed. Results overall suggest that stressors predict changes in rates of symptoms of psychopathology in children and adolescents over time. Results also suggest that symptoms of psychopathology predict changes in rates of stressors over time. Implications of these findings are that conclusive evidence now exists for the importance of stressors in the development of child and adolescent psychopathology.     

Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: evidence of moderating and mediating effects

This paper reviews studies that have tested for moderators or mediators of the relation between stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology. Many studies have tested for moderation, but results of research studying moderators have been inconclusive. There have been few theory-based studies and there have been few consistent findings. Far fewer studies have tested for mediation effects, but these studies have generally been theory-driven, have more often built upon one another in an incremental fashion, and have yielded consistent results. In particular, there is substantial evidence for the mediating role of family relationship in the relation between stressors and child and adolescent psychological symptoms. Future studies should integrate moderator and mediator research by testing for specific mediators in relation to particular moderating contexts, so that we can better understand the complex ways in which stressful life experiences affect the well-being of children and adolescents.     

Salivary changes in solution pH: a source of individual differences in sour taste perception

The role of saliva in sour taste perception was investigated in a series of 4 experiments. In one pair of experiments, solution pH was measured before and after acetic, citric or hydrochloric acid solutions were mixed with saliva either normally in the oral cavity or after saliva was directly added to solutions. The results showed that large increases in solution pH occurred over a wide range of acid concentrations and that the changes in pH were related to individual salivary flow rates; greater increases in solution pH occurred among those individuals with higher flow rates. The other pair of experiments measured taste threshold and suprathreshold responses to different volumes of acids. The results demonstrated that individuals with high salivary flow rates were less sensitive to the taste of acids and that large volumes of acid were more easily perceived. The pattern of findings suggest that saliva-induced changes in solution pH are important in sour taste perception.     

Adrenocortical activity in at-risk and normally developing adolescents: individual differences in salivary cortisol basal levels, diurnal variation, and responses to social challenges

The purpose of this study was to examine adrenocortical activity (basal, diurnal variation, and responses to social stressors) in adolescents at risk for psychopathology. Salivary cortisol levels were examined in normally developing and at-risk youth with internalizing and externalizing symptoms ranging from subclinical to clinical levels. Adolescents showed expected patterns of diurnal variation, with high early morning cortisol levels and a pattern of decline throughout the day. Females showed higher midday and late afternoon levels than males, and these patterns interacted with risk status. Internalizing problems sometimes were associated with gradual rather than steep declines in basal cortisol production. Both immediate and delayed cortisol reactivity to a social performance stressor were associated with internalizing symptoms. There was no evidence of relations between externalizing problems and underarousal of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system. These and other results suggest that gender is an important moderating factor linking psychopathology. development, and context with HPA axis functioning in adolescence.