Perceived parenting dimensions and identity styles: exploring the socialization of adolescents' processing of identity-relevant information

This study examined the relationships between crucial dimensions of perceived parenting (support, behavioral control, and psychological control) and the three identity styles defined by Berzonsky [Berzonsky, M. D. (1990). Self-construction over the life span: A process perspective on identity formation. Advances in Personal Construct Psychology, 1, 155-186.]. Each identity style was hypothesized to relate to a specific pattern of perceived parenting dimensions. Hypotheses were examined in a sample of middle and late adolescents (n=674). An information-oriented style was positively predicted by parental support. Contrary to expectations, however, an information-oriented style was also positively predicted by psychological control. A normative identity style was positively predicted by support and behavioral control. In line with expectations, a diffuse-avoidant identity style was positively predicted by psychological control and negatively by maternal (but not paternal) behavioral control. Findings are discussed in light of the literature on the socialization of identity formation and directions for future research are outlined.     

Exploring Individual Differences in Online Addictions: the Role of Identity and Attachment

Research examining the development of online addictions has grown greatly over the last decade with many studies suggesting both risk factors and protective factors. In an attempt to integrate the theories of attachment and identity formation, the present study investigated the extent to which identity styles and attachment orientations account for three types of online addiction (i.e., internet addiction, online gaming addiction, and social media addiction). The sample comprised 712 Italian students (381 males and 331 females) recruited from schools and universities who completed an offline self-report questionnaire. The findings showed that addictions to the internet, online gaming, and social media were interrelated and were predicted by common underlying risk and protective factors. Among identity styles, ‘informational’ and ‘diffuse-avoidant’ styles were risk factors, whereas ‘normative’ style was a protective factor. Among attachment dimensions, the ‘secure’ attachment orientation negatively predicted the three online addictions, and a different pattern of causal relationships were observed between the styles underlying ‘anxious’ and ‘avoidant’ attachment orientations. Hierarchical multiple regressions demonstrated that identity styles explained between 21.2 and 30% of the variance in online addictions, whereas attachment styles incrementally explained between 9.2 and 14% of the variance in the scores on the three addiction scales. These findings highlight the important role played by identity formation in the development of online addictions.     

Adolescent psychological well-being by identity style

High school-age adolescents (N=262) in two samples completed a measure of identity style, along with measures of self-esteem, hopelessness, delinquent attitudes, educational expectations, and optimism/efficacy. Analysis of variance was used to evaluate the relationship between identity style and the other psychosocial variables. Participants classified as having a diffuse/avoidant orientation had lower self-esteem and higher delinquent attitude scores than those with either an information or normative orientation. At the same time, the diffuse-avoidant style was associated with higher hopelessness and lower optimism/efficacy scores than the normative and information styles. The normative and information styles did not differ significantly in terms of the dependent variables. Results also indicated that males were more likely to be diffused and females more likely to be information-oriented.     

A meta-analytic review of Berzonsky's Identity Style Inventory (ISI)

Identity formation is an essential developmental challenge associated with adolescence (Cote, 2009; Erikson, 1950, 1968). Berzonsky (1988) developed a social-cognitive model that distinguishes three styles by which adolescents engage the tasks associated with identity formation: informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant. Focusing on studies (K?=?62) that employed the Identity Style Inventory (ISI; Berzonsky, 1989), three meta-analytic reviews were performed. First, results show a medium positive association between the informational and normative styles, a medium negative association between informational and diffuse-avoidant styles, and a negligible negative association between the normative and diffuse-avoidant styles. Second, results show large positive associations between commitment and both the informational and normative identity styles, and a large negative association between commitment and the diffuse-avoidant style. Finally, results show a small positive association between gender and the diffuse-avoidant identity style, with men scoring higher than women. Age and country of origin were evaluated as moderators.     

Parental and Peer Predictors of Social Anxiety in Youth

The aim of the current study was to extend etiological models of social anxiety in youth by examining the relative importance of parental (i.e., parental anxiety, rejection, and overcontrol) and peer factors (i.e., social acceptance, social support, and friendship quality). Sixty-three youth (ages 7–12; 52% male) and their parents participated in the study. Using multiple informants of these factors, results generally indicated that higher levels of parental anxiety, rejection, and overcontrol were related to higher levels of social anxiety. Higher levels of social support, acceptance, and validation were associated with lower levels social anxiety. The strongest predictors of social anxiety symptoms (as rated by an independent evaluator) were parental anxiety and friendship quality (i.e., validation from a peer). The strongest predictors of child rated social anxiety symptoms were parental overcontrol and perceived social acceptance. Findings are discussed in the context of current etiological models and suggest that interventions aimed at lowering social anxiety in youth address both parental anxiety and peer relationships.     

Identity and intimacy during adolescence: Connections among identity styles,romantic attachment and identity commitment

Integration of adult attachment and psychosocial development theories suggests that adolescence is a time when capacities for romantic intimacy and identity formation are co-evolving. The current study addressed direct, indirect and moderated associations among identity and romantic attachment constructs with a diverse sample of 2178 middle adolescents. Identity styles were found to have unique and direct associations with identity commitment. Attachment anxiety showed only indirect associations and attachment avoidance had both direct and indirect associations with identity commitment. Tests of moderation revealed that gender, race and relationship status had no influence on the direct associations of identity styles or romantic attachment with identity commitment. Few differences in association strength among identity styles and romantic attachment emerged for gender or race. However, the differences found for relationship status suggested that relationship experiences adolescents bring to their exploration of identity and intimacy matter for how these two areas of development articulate.     

Personality,peer relations,and self-confidence as predictors of happiness and loneliness

This study is set out to examine to what extent peer relations, self-confidence, and school performance correlated with self-rated happiness (OHI) and loneliness (UCLA LS) in adolescents. Personality traits (EPQ), self-confidence (PEI), friendship and school grades were all significantly oppositely correlated with happiness and loneliness. Regressional analysis revealed that extraversion and neuroticism were direct predictors of happiness and self-confidence, while psychoticism and extraversion were direct predictors of loneliness. The effect of sex on happiness and loneliness was moderated by friendship and neuroticism, and by neuroticism and psychoticism, respectively. Extraversion was also a significant predictor of general confidence and social interactions which directly influenced loneliness whilst psychoticism was a direct predictor of loneliness. Self-rated school performance was the only direct predictor of happiness whereas general confidence and social interactions were related to adolescents' self-reported loneliness.     

Relations Between Executive Functions,Social Impairment,and Friendship Quality on Adjustment Among High Functioning Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder

High functioning adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) often have adjustment difficulties, specifically loneliness and depression. To better understand contributing factors, the current study evaluated associations between several Executive Function (EF) domains, social impairment, and friendship quality on depressive symptoms and loneliness in this population. Participants included 127 high functioning ASD adolescents and a parent/caregiver. Results indicated significant levels of parent-reported EF impairment which were positively correlated with increased levels of loneliness and depressive symptoms. Social impairment was identified as a significant mediator between all studied EF domains and adjustment, while friendship quality only partially mediated the relation between emotional control and loneliness. These results have implications for treatments focusing both on social skills and adjustment in adolescents with ASD.     

Brief report: The Identity Style Inventory (ISI-3) and the Utrecht-Management of Identity Commitments Scale (U-MICS): factor structure, reliability, and convergent validity in French-speaking university students

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the factor structure and the reliability of the French versions of the Identity Style Inventory (ISI-3) and the Utrecht-Management of Identity Commitments Scale (U-MICS) in a sample of college students (N?=?457, 18-25 years old). Confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the hypothesized three-factor solution of the ISI-3 identity styles (i.e. informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant styles), the one-factor solution of the ISI-3 identity commitment, and the three-factor structure of the U-MICS (i.e. commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment). Additionally, theoretically consistent and meaningful associations among the ISI-3, U-MICS, and Ego Identity Process Questionnaire (EIPQ) confirmed convergent validity. Overall, the results of the present study indicate that the French versions of the ISI-3 and UMICS are useful instruments for assessing identity styles and processes, and provide additional support to the cross-cultural validity of these tools.     

Close relationships and attributions for peer victimization among late adolescents

This study examined the effect of close relationships (best friendship and romantic relationship) on late adolescents' casual attributions for peer victimization. A total of 1106 twelfth grade students completed self-report measures of perceived peer victimization, self-blame attribution, psychological maladjustment (loneliness and social anxiety), and quality of close peer relationships. Results indicated that self-blame partly mediated the link between peer victimization and psychological maladjustment. Relationship quality moderated the victimization–self-blame relation. Participants were more likely to endorse self-blame attributions for peer victimization when they had a negative relationship with a best friend or romantic partner. The moderated effect of negative best friendship quality was only significant for girls, whereas the moderated effect of negative romantic relationship quality was only significant for boys. Implications of these findings for future research on close relations during adolescence and for interventions to reduce the effects of peer victimization were discussed.     

Keeping secrets from friends: Exploring the effects of friendship quality,loneliness and self-esteem on secrecy

The tendency to keep secrets in adolescents has been studied in particular in their relationships with their parents and associated with psychosocial disadvantages. The current study focused on peer relationships and investigated the effects of friendship quality, loneliness in a multidimensional perspective, and self-esteem on secrecy from friends. Italian adolescents (N = 457; 47% male; 100% white) aged between 13 and 19 years (M = 16.11; SD = 1.53) reported their secrecy from friends, peer and parent-related loneliness, aversion and affinity for aloneness, their self-esteem and the quality of their relationships with their friends. The results showed that peer-related loneliness, affinity for aloneness and self-esteem in particular affect keeping secrets from friends, independent of the participant's gender. Moreover, peer-related loneliness and affinity for aloneness mediated the relationship between self-esteem and secrecy. The data were discussed in the light of adolescence developmental tasks.     

Loneliness among students with special educational needs in mainstream seventh grade

The goals of this study were twofold. The first aim was to explore loneliness prevalence in typically developing students, students with ASD and students with motor and/or sensory disabilities in mainstream 7th grade in Belgium. The second aim was to explore the relations between number of friends, friendship quality, social self-concept on the one hand and loneliness on the other for each of these three groups, and to compare them across groups. In this study, 108 students with special educational needs (SEN; i.e., 58 students with ASD and 50 students with motor and/or sensory disabilities) were matched to 108 typically developing classmates. Students with ASD reported more loneliness than typically developing students and students with motor and/or sensory disabilities. Loneliness prevalence for typically developing students and students with motor and/or sensory disabilities did not differ significantly. Factors related with loneliness differed between typically developing students and students with SEN (i.e., students with ASD and students with motor and/or sensory disabilities). For students with SEN, same-sex social self-concept was related with loneliness, but not, as for typically developing students, number of friends and opposite-sex social self-concept. Also friendship quality had a marginally significant effect on loneliness feelings for students with SEN. Implications for further research and practice are discussed.     

Humor style similarity and difference in friendship dyads

This study assessed the concurrent and prospective (fall to spring) associations between four different humor styles to assess the degree to which stable friendships are characterized by similarity, and to assess whether best friends' humor styles influence each other's later use of humor. Participants were aged 11–13 years, with 87 stable, reciprocal best friend dyads. Self-report assessments of humor styles were completed on both occasions. Results indicated that there was no initial similarity in dyads' levels of humor. However, dyads' use of humor that enhances interpersonal relationships (Affiliative humor) became positively correlated by spring. Additionally, young people's use of this humor style was positively associated with their best friend's later use of the same. No such effects were present for humor which was aggressive, denigrating toward the self, or used to enhance the self. These results have clear implications for theories of humor style development, highlighting an important role for Affiliative humor within stable friendship dyads.     

Maternal Personal Resources and Children’s Socioemotional and Behavioral Adjustment

The study examined the role of three maternal personal resources [sense of coherence (SOC), attachment style, and social/emotional feelings of loneliness] in explaining children’s socioemotional adjustment (self-rated loneliness and SOC, and mother-rated child behavior) and children’s (self-rated) secure attachment. The sample included 58 mother–child dyads (27 boys and 31 girls) aged 8–11 years. Preliminary analyses indicated significant group differences between mothers with high or low scores on the two subscales of the attachment scale (i.e., avoidance and anxiety), on their SOC, and their social/emotional loneliness. Findings revealed that maternal SOC significantly contributed to all child socioemotional adjustment measures and attachment scores. In addition, the current findings demonstrated the role of maternal anxious attachment in explaining children’s externalizing behaviors. Discussion focused on the unique value of maternal characteristics for understanding social and emotional adjustment among school-age children.     

Links between parenting and extra-familial relationships: Nature or nurture?

The current paper examined associations between parenting and both peer group characteristics and friendship quality within a genetically sensitive design. Participants were aged 12-19 years (approximately equal numbers of males and females), including 424 sibling pairs and 1185 twin pairs, of whom 328 were MZ, 311 were DZ same-sex, 463 were DZ opposite-sex and 83 were of unknown zygosity. The adolescents provided self-report questionnaire measures of parental discipline, friendship quality, and peer group characteristics. All three relationship measures were moderately to substantially heritable. The novel and provocative finding, that adolescents' genetic propensities are largely responsible for the overlap seen between parental discipline strategies and friendship quality, is discussed in terms of its implications for socialization theory and understanding of adolescent relationships.     

Effects of autistic traits on social and school adjustment in children and adolescents: The moderating roles of age and gender

This study examined the associations between children's and adolescents’ autistic-like social deficits and school and social adjustment as well as the moderating roles of age and gender in these associations. The sample consisted of 1321 students (48.7% boys) in Grade 1 to Grade 8 from northern Taiwan. Children's and adolescents’ autistic-like social deficits were assessed using the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), and their school and social adjustment (i.e., academic performance, negative attitudes toward schoolwork/teachers/classmates, behavioral problems at schools, negative peer relationships, and problems with peers) were assessed using the Social Adjustment Inventory for Children and Adolescents (SAICA). Both measures were completed by the mothers of the participants. Results from the linear mixed models demonstrated that autistic-like social deficits were associated with poor academic performance, negative attitudes toward schoolwork, teachers, and classmates, behavioral problems at schools, negative peer relationships, and problematic peer interactions. Moreover, gender and/or age moderated the associations between autistic-like social deficits and school and social adjustment problems. For example, autistic-like social deficits were more strongly related to negative school attitude, school social problems, and negative peer relationships in boys than in girls. Further, autistic-like social deficits were more strongly related to problems with peers in older girls than in older boys or younger children (regardless of gender). In conclusion, the present study suggests that autistic-like social deficits may place children and adolescents at increased risk for social and school maladjustment and that the extent of maladjustment may vary with the child's age and gender and the domains of adjustment under discussion.     

Peer group impulsivity moderated the individual-level relationship between depressive symptoms and adolescent nonsuicidal self-injury

This study examined the influence of impulsive friendship group contexts on nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) and how peer group impulsivity (i.e. negative urgency and premeditation) moderated the individual level relationship between depression and NSSI among 1701 Chinese secondary school students (1147 females). Participants were assessed twice over a 6-month interval. After controlling for direct socialization effects for NSSI, multilevel analysis indicated that friendship group negative urgency exerted a significant influence on NSSI. Additionally, friendship group premeditation weakened the relation between individual depression and NSSI, while friendship group negative urgency strengthened the relation between depression and NSSI. The results suggest the contribution of indirect peer influence effects to NSSI.     

Peer victimisation and internalising difficulties: The moderating role of friendship quality

A cross-sectional study is reported in which loneliness and emotional problems are explored in adolescent victims of direct or relational bullying, together with the potentially moderating influence of friendship quality. Adolescents (N=401, mean age 13.5) completed the School Relationships Questionnaire, to identify bullying and victimisation roles, the Friendship Activity Questionnaire (FAQ), the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) to assess emotional problems, and the Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction Questionnaire (LSDQ). Relational victims, but not direct victims reported significantly elevated feelings of loneliness and emotional problems compared to non-victims. Direct victims reported a significantly higher quality of friendship, compared to non-victims. Poor quality of friendship was also associated with high levels of loneliness, and vice versa for direct victims, but not for relational victims. This indicates that the higher quality of friendship found in direct victims is associated with the reduced levels of loneliness found in this group. Given the cross-sectional nature of this study, it is not possible to ascertain whether this association truly reflects the role of friendship quality as a moderator, and hence protective factor against adverse influences of victimisation. The different mechanisms underlying direct and relational victimisation are important for future research and intervention programmes.     

Different types of Internet use, depression, and social anxiety: The role of perceived friendship quality

The current study examined the longitudinal associations of time spent on Internet activities for communication purposes (i.e., IM-ing) versus time spent on Internet activities for non-communication purposes (i.e., surfing) with depression and social anxiety, as well as the moderating role of perceived friendship quality in these associations. Questionnaire data were gathered from 307 Dutch middle adolescents (average age 15 years) on two waves with a one-year interval. For adolescents who perceive low friendship quality, Internet use for communication purposes predicted less depression, whereas Internet use for non-communication purposes predicted more depression and more social anxiety. These results support social compensation effects of IM-ing on depression and poor-get-poorer effects of surfing on depression and social anxiety, respectively.     

Implications of Aggressive Children's Positively Biased Relatedness Views for Future Relationships

The present study examined the tendency of aggressive children to generalize the positive bias in their perceptions of relatedness across different interpersonal relationships. Secondly, it examined the implications of distorted perceptions of relatedness for quality of aggressive children's future relationships. Subjects included 62 second and third grade children nominated and rated by teachers as aggressive. Self- and others' appraisals of relationship quality were gathered across four interpersonal domains (i.e., mother, teacher, mentor, and peer). Children's positively biased perceptions of social relatedness were concordant across adult relationship domains but not across the peer domain, suggesting that children's relationships with adults and peers represent somewhat distinct socialization contexts. As expected, children who inflate levels of social relatedness establish less close relationships with novel partners (mentors). The findings emphasize the need for clinicians to focus on mental representations while planning interventions with aggressive children.