Ethylene oxide gas sterilization: a simple technique for storing explanted skull bone. Technical note

The authors evaluated the effectiveness of a simple technique using ethylene oxide (EtO) gas sterilization and room temperature storage of autologous bone grafts for reconstructive cranioplasty following decompressive craniectomy. The authors retrospectively analyzed data in 103 consecutive patients who underwent cranioplasty following decompressive craniectomy for any cause at the University of Illinois at Chicago between 1999 and 2005. Patients with a pre-existing intracranial infection prior to craniectomy or lost to follow-up before reconstruction were excluded. Autologous bone grafts were cleansed of soft tissue, hermetically sealed in sterilization pouches for EtO gas sterilization, and stored at room temperature until reconstructive cranioplasty was performed. Cranioplasties were performed an average of 4 months after decompressive craniectomy, and the follow-up after reconstruction averaged 14 months. Excellent aesthetic and functional results after single-stage reconstruction were achieved in 95 patients (92.2%) as confirmed on computed tomography. An infection of the bone flap occurred in eight patients (7.8%), and the skull defects were eventually reconstructed using polymethylmethacrylate with satisfactory results. The mean preservation interval was 3.8 months in patients with uninfected flaps and 6.4 months in those with infected flaps (p = 0.02). A preservation time beyond 10 months was associated with a significantly increased risk of flap infection postcranioplasty (odds ratio [OR] 10.8, p = 0.02). Additionally, patients who had undergone multiple craniotomies demonstrated a trend toward increased infection rates (OR 3.0, p = 0.13). Data in this analysis support the effectiveness of this method, which can be performed at any institution that provides EtO gas sterilization services. The findings also suggest that bone flaps preserved beyond 10 months using this technique should be discarded or resterilized prior to reconstruction.     

Long-term complications and implant survival rates after cranioplastic surgery: a single-center study of 392 patients

Cranioplasty (CP) is a standard procedure in neurosurgical practice for patients after (decompressive) craniectomy. However, CP surgery is not standardized, is carried out in different ways, and is associated with considerable complication rates. Here, we report our experiences with the use of different CP materials and analyze long-term complications and implant survival rates. We retrospectively studied patients who underwent CP surgery at our institution between 2004 and 2014. Binary logistic regression analysis was performed in order to identify risk factors for the development of complications. Kaplan-Meier analysis was used to estimate implant survival rates. A total of 392 patients (182 females, 210 males) with a mean age of 48 years were included. These patients underwent a total of 508 CP surgeries. The overall complication rate of primary CP was 33.2%, due to bone resorption/loosening (14.6%) and graft infection (7.9%) with a mean implant survival of 120?±?5 months. Binary logistic regression analysis showed that young age (<?30 years) (p?=?0.026, OR 3.150), the presence of multidrug-resistant bacteria (p?=?0.045, OR 2.273), and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) shunt (p?=?0.001, OR 3.137) were risk factors for postoperative complications. The use of titanium miniplates for CP fixation was associated with reduced complication rates and bone flap osteolysis as well as longer implant survival rates. The present study highlights the risk profile of CP surgery. Young age (<?30 years) and shunt-dependent hydrocephalus are associated with postoperative complications especially due to bone flap autolysis. Furthermore, a rigid CP fixation seems to play a crucial role in reducing complication rates.

     

Decompressive craniectomy for severe traumatic brain injury: The relationship between surgical complications and the prediction of an unfavourable outcome

Object

To assess the impact that injury severity has on complications in patients who have had a decompressive craniectomy for severe traumatic brain injury (TBI).

Methods

This prospective observational cohort study included all patients who underwent a decompressive craniectomy following severe TBI at the two major trauma hospitals in Western Australia from 2004 to 2012. All complications were recorded during this period. The clinical and radiological data of the patients on initial presentation were entered into a web-based model prognostic model, the CRASH (Corticosteroid Randomization After Significant Head injury) collaborators prediction model, to obtain the predicted risk of an unfavourable outcome which was used as a measure of injury severity.

Results

Complications after decompressive craniectomy for severe TBI were common. The predicted risk of unfavourable outcome was strongly associated with the development of neurological complications such as herniation of the brain outside the skull bone defects (median predicted risk of unfavourable outcome for herniation 72% vs. 57% without herniation, p = 0.001), subdural effusion (median predicted risk of unfavourable outcome 67% with an effusion vs. 57% for those without an effusion, p = 0.03), hydrocephalus requiring ventriculo-peritoneal shunt (median predicted risk of unfavourable outcome 86% for those with hydrocephalus vs. 59% for those without hydrocephalus, p = 0.001), but not infection (p = 0.251) or resorption of bone flap (p = 0.697) and seizures (0.987). We did not observe any associations between timing of cranioplasty and risk of infection or resorption of bone flap after cranioplasty.

Conclusions

Mechanical complications after decompressive craniectomy including herniation of the brain outside the skull bone defects, subdural effusion, and hydrocephalus requiring ventriculo-peritoneal shunt were more common in patients with a more severe form of TBI when quantified by the CRASH predicted risk of unfavourable outcome. The CRASH predicted risk of unfavourable outcome represents a useful baseline characteristic of patients in observational and interventional trials involving patients with severe TBI requiring decompressive craniectomy.     

Long-term complications of decompressive craniectomy for head injury

There is currently much interest in the use of decompressive craniectomy for intracranial hypertension. Though technically straightforward, the procedure is not without significant complications. A retrospective analysis was undertaken of 164 patients who had had a decompressive craniectomy for severe head injury in the years 2004 to 2009 at the two major hospitals in Western Australia. Eighty-six patients had a bifrontal decompression and seventy-eight had a unilateral decompression. Two patients died due to post-operative care issues. Complications attributable to the decompressive surgery were: herniation of the cortex through the bone defect (42 patients, 25.6%), subdural effusion (81 patients, 49.4%), seizures (36 patients, 22%), hydrocephalus (23 patients, 14%), and syndrome of the trephined (2 patients, 1.2%). Complications attributable to the subsequent cranioplasty included: sudden death due to massive cerebral swelling in 3 patients (2.2%), infection requiring removal of the bone flap in 16 patients (11.6%), and bone flap resorption requiring augmentation in 10 patients (7.2%). After excluding simple complications such as subdural effusion and brain herniation through the skull defect and some patients who died as a direct consequence of traumatic brain or extracranial injury, 81 patients (55.5%) had at least one complication after decompressive craniectomy. The occurrence of at least one complication after decompressive craniectomy was significantly associated with an increased risk of prolonged stay in the hospital or rehabilitation facility (odds ratio 2.54, 95%confidence interval 1.22,5.24, p=0.013), after adjusting for predicted risk of unfavorable outcome.     

“Single-step” resection and cranio-orbital reconstruction for spheno-orbital metastasis with custom made implant. A case report and review of the literature

Introduction and importanceBrain metastasis involving the skull base is a rare complication of malignant tumors. Besides radiotherapy, surgical treatment is a therapeutical option even though it may apply complex technical procedures that may delay complementary therapies. However, in recent days, the innovation of custom-made implants allows treating selected patients with fewer complications and better results.Case presentationWe describe a single case of a complex fronto-orbital skull base metastasis requiring skull bone reconstruction that we treated with a single-step surgery and custom-made implant. Our procedure consists of two steps: in the first one, we perform a “virtual” craniotomy on a 3D phantom model previously built on a high-resolution bone CT scan. In the second step, the actual surgical procedure, the patient undergoes the resection and reconstruction of the cranial defect with an implant of PMMA custom-made cranioplasty. A three-month clinical and radiological follow-up is reported, which documented the extent of resection and good aesthetic results.Clinical discussionIn our case, we performed a skull reconstruction of cranio-orbital region with macroscopic gross-total resection of the tumor. Complementary radiotherapy was obtained after one month. Three-month follow-up showed good esthetic results and progression-free disease. A recent review of the literature is provided to discuss different reconstruction techniques.Conclusion“Single-Step” resection and custom-made reconstruction is a relatively new technique that could be helpful not only for benign tumors, which remains its main application but also in selected cases of malignant tumors when immediate reconstruction and faster complementary treatments are needed.     

Preservation of the temporal muscle during the frontotemporoparietal approach for decompressive craniectomy: Technical note

Background

In patients undergoing decompressive craniectomy, resection and detachment of the temporal muscle produces esthetic and functional damage, due to atrophy of the frontal portion of the temporal muscle in the temporal fossa. We have performed en-block temporal muscle detachment in decompressive craniectomy patients to avoid esthetic and functional damage to the temporal muscle.

Methods

Twenty-one patients underwent decompressive craniectomy using a frontotemporoparietal approach. Through a three-leaf clover flap skin incision, the temporal muscle was detached en-block and overturned antero-inferiorly conjoined with the frontal myocutaneous flap. A decompressive craniectomy and duraplasty were performed. A polyethylene sheet was added to prevent adherence of the temporal muscle to the dura mater.

Results

The decompressive craniectomy was effective in all patients. When subsequent cranioplasty was performed, the temporal muscle was easily repositioned. No complications resulted from the en-block temporal muscle detachment or the use of the polyethylene sheet. In 18 patients eligible for clinical and radiological follow-up, excellent (n?=?4) or good (n?=?14) esthetic results were detected. Chewing ability is considered normal by all patients.

Conclusion

Although it requires that the patient undergo two surgical procedures, en-block detachment of the temporal muscle during decompressive craniectomy allows good esthetic and functional results.     

Osteoplastic decompressive craniotomy--an alternative to decompressive craniectomy

Background  

In spite of various degrees of brain expansion, decompressive surgery is usually carried out using decompressive craniectomy (DC). After craniectomy it is necessary to perform cranioplasty, which prolongs hospitalization and is not always without complications. Hence, in situations when cranial decompression is indicated, but DC would be too radical, we do not remove the bone flap, and we perform so-called osteoplastic decompressive craniotomy (ODC). The technique is detailed.     

Effect of microorganisms isolated by preoperative osseous sampling on surgical site infection after autologous cranioplasty: A single-center experience

PurposeThe most frequent postoperative complication in autologous cranioplasty (AC) is infection. European recommendations include osseous sampling before cryogenic storage of a bone flap. We evaluated the clinical impact of this sampling.MethodsAll patients who underwent decompressive craniectomy (DC) and AC in our center between November 2010 and September 2021 were reviewed. The main outcome was the rate of reoperation for infection of the cranioplasty. We evaluated risk factors for bone flap infection, rate of reoperation for any reason (hematoma, skin erosion, cosmetic request, or bone resorption), and radiological evidence of bone flap resorption.ResultsA total of 195 patients with a median age of 50 (interquartile range: 38.0–57.0) years underwent DC and AC between 2010 and 2021. Of the 195 bone flaps, 54 (27.7%) had a positive culture, including 48 (88.9%) with Cutibacterium acnes. Of the 14 patients who underwent reoperation for bone flap re-removal for infection, 5 and 9 had positive and negative bacteriological cultures, respectively. Of patients who did not have bone flap infection, 49 and 132 had positive and negative bacteriological cultures, respectively. There were no significant differences between patients with and without positive bacteriological culture of bone flaps in the rates of late bone necrosis and reoperation for bone flap infection.ConclusionsA positive culture of intraoperative osseous sampling during DC is not associated with a higher risk of re-intervention after AC.     

Blood loss and duration of surgery are independent risk factors for complications after breast reconstruction

Background: Complications after breast reconstructive surgery are common, and they can be caused by a wide range of factors. The aim of the present study was to identify independent perioperative risk factors for postoperative complications after breast reconstruction.

Methods: A retrospective study was performed of 623 consecutive breast cancer patients who had undergone deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap, latissimus dorsi (LD) flap, lateral thoracodorsal flap (LTDF), or tissue expander with secondary implant (EXP). Data on demography, perioperative parameters, and complications were collected. Logistic regression models adjusted to the reconstruction method and to confounding demographic factors were used for statistical analysis.

Results: Increased blood loss for each 10-ml step increased the risk for overall early complications (p?=?0.017), early seroma (p?=?0.037), early resurgery (p?=?0.010), late local overall complications (p?=?0.024), and late fat necrosis (p?=?0.031). Longer duration of surgery for each 10-minute step increased the risk of overall early complications (p?=?0.019), but, in the univariate model, there was an increased risk for nine different types of complications (p?=?0.004–0.029). There was no association between the experience of the surgeon performing the procedure and the frequency of complications.

Conclusions: Duration of surgery and blood loss during surgery are independent risk factors for postoperative complications, and should be minimised. Further research is needed to establish the association between the experience of the surgeon and the occurrence of complications.     

A systematic review and meta-analysis of factors involved in bone flap resorption after decompressive craniectomy

Decompressive craniectomy (DC) is effective in controlling increasing intracranial pressure determined by a wide range of conditions, mainly traumatic brain injury (TBI) and stroke, and the subsequent cranioplasty (CP) displays potential therapeutic benefit in terms of overall neurological function. While autologous bone flap (ABF) harvested at the time of DC is the ideal material for skull defect reconstruction, it carries several risks. Aseptic bone flap resorption (BFR) is one of the most common complications, often leading to surgical failure. The aim of our study was to systematically review the literature and carry out a meta-analysis of possible factors involved in BFR in patients undergoing ABF cranioplasty after DC. A systematic review and meta-analysis was performed in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. Different medical databases (PubMed, Embase, and Scopus) were screened for eligible scientific reports until April 30th 2021. The following data were collected for meta-analysis to assess their role in BFR: sex, age, the interval time between DC and CP, the presence of systemic factors, the etiology determining the DC, CP surgical time, CP features, VP shunt placement, CP infection. Studies including pediatric patients or with less than 50 patients were excluded. Fifteen studies were included. There was a statistically significant increased incidence of BFR in patients with CPF?>?2 compared to patients with CPF?≤?2 (54.50% and 22.76% respectively, p?=?0.010). TBI was a significantly more frequent etiology in the BFR group compared to patients without BFR (61.95% and 47.58% respectively, p?<?0.001). Finally, patients with BFR were significantly younger than patients without BFR (39.12?±?15.36 years and 47.31?±?14.78 years, respectively, p?<?0.001). The funnel plots were largely symmetrical for all the studied factors. Bone flap fragmentation, TBI etiology, and young age significantly increase the risk of bone resorption. Further studies are needed to strengthen our results and to clarify if, in those cases, a synthetic implant for primary CP should be recommended.

     

Cranioplasty with autologous cryopreserved bone after decompressive craniectomy. Complications and risk factors for developing surgical site infection

Background

Renewed interest has developed in decompressive craniectomy, and improved survival is shown when this treatment is used after malignant middle cerebral artery infarction. The aim of this study was to investigate the frequency and possible risk factors for developing surgical site infection (SSI) after delayed cranioplasty using autologous, cryopreserved bone.

Methods

This retrospective study included 74 consecutive patients treated with decompressive craniectomy during the time period May 1998 to October 2010 for various non-traumatic conditions causing increased intracranial pressure due to brain swelling. Complications were registered and patient data was analyzed in a search for predictive factors.

Results

Fifty out of the 74 patients (67.6 %) survived and underwent delayed cranioplasty. Of these, 47 were eligible for analysis. Six patients (12.8 %) developed SSI following the replacement of autologous cryopreserved bone, whereas bone resorption occurred in two patients (4.3 %). No factors predicted a statistically significant rate of SSI, however, prolonged procedural time and cardiovascular comorbidity tended to increase the risk of SSI.

Conclusions

SSI and bone flap resorption are the most frequent complications associated with the reimplantation of autologous cryopreserved bone after decompressive craniectomy. Prolonged procedural time and cardiovascular comorbidity tend to increase the risk of SSI.     

Construction of titanium cranioplasty plate using craniectomy bone flap as template

In recent times a steady rise in cranioplasty operations has been noted because of increasing utilisation of decompressive craniectomy for trauma as well as stroke patients. A variety of techniques have been utilised for cranioplasty, with their own benefits and limitations. Titanium cranioplasty is one of the well-established and widely used techniques, with most centres utilising computer-assisted reconstruction for manufacture of titanium plates. In this paper we present a novel method for making titanium cranioplasty plates using the craniectomy bone flap as a template and the results of our experience. To date we have performed 51 cranioplasties using this method. The surgical results have been comparable to those obtained using the computer-assisted model technique. The construction cost for titanium cranioplasty plates using this method has been ￡360 cheaper per plate compared with the computer-assisted method. In addition, the CT workload and radiation exposure have been reduced.     

Ethylene oxide sterilization of autologous bone flaps following decompressive craniectomy

Summary ¶Introduction. In patients undergoing decompressive craniectomy, the bone flap is temporarily preserved either in the subcutaneous tissue of the patient or frozen. However, there are some drawbacks related to these methods. Material and methods. In 16 patients in whom the bone flap was removed for decompressive craniectomy, the bone was firstly washed in hydrogen peroxide and then placed in hermetically-sealed bags and sterilized using ethylene oxide. The bone was repositioned after an average period of 4.3 months. Results. One patient sustained an infection of the surgical wound which required permanent exclusion of the bone flap. In all the others, esthetic and functional results were good after an average follow-up of 20 months. Control CT-scan of the bone flap demonstrated preservation of its structural features with fusion of the bone margins and revitalization of the flap. On MRI a subdural space was again visible. Conclusions. Sterilization of the bone flap with ethylene oxide in patients undergoing decompressive craniectomy avoids some of the drawbacks related to the techniques currently used. The easiness, low cost, good aesthetic and functional results of this procedure make it a valid alternative to other techniques for preservation of autologous bone in decompressive craniectomies.Published online September 26, 2003     

Fracture précoce d’une cranioplastie en céramique macroporeuse d’hydroxyapatite

Different prosthesis implants are offered to perform a cranioplasty after a decompressive craniectomy when autologous bone graft cannot be used. The authors report the case of a 25-year-old man who benefited a unilateral decompressive craniectomy after a severe head trauma. Seven months later, a cranioplasty using custom macroporous hydroxyapatite prosthesis was performed. The postoperative course was marked by a generalized seizure leading to a traumatic head injury. The CT-scan showed a comminutive fracture of the prosthesis and an extradural hematoma. The patient underwent a removal of the fractured prosthesis and an evacuation of the extradural clot. The postoperative course was uneventful with a Glasgow outcome scale score at 5. A second cranioplasty using a polyether ether ketone (PEEK) implant was performed. Among cranioplasty prosthesis solutions, hydroxyapatite implants seem to have similar property to the bone. However, its weak mechanic resistance is an actual problem in patients susceptible to present generalized seizures with consecutive head impact. Hence, in patients with decompressive craniectomy who are exposed to potential brain injury, we favor the use of more resistant implant as PEEK prosthesis.     

Analysis of the factors affecting graft infection after cranioplasty

Background

The predictors of graft infection after cranioplasty (GIC) following decompressive craniectomy are not well established. Knowledge of the risk factors for GIC will allow development of preventive measures designed to reduce infection rates. Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify risk factors for the development of GIC.

Methods

A total of 85 patients underwent reconstructive cranioplasty after decompressive craniectomy between January 2009 and July 2011 and had a follow-up period of > 1 year; charts were reviewed retrospectively. Although autograft was used whenever possible, artificial bone was used for cranioplasty. GIC was defined as infection requiring removal of the bone graft.

Results

GIC occurred in six patients (7.05 %). GIC was not related to the indications for craniectomy, the interval of cranioplasty, graft material, or the size of the bone defect (p?=?0.433, p?=?0.206, p?=?0.665, and p?=?0.999, respectively). The GIC rate was significantly related to previous temporalis muscle resection, preoperative subgaleal fluid collection, operative times > 120 min, and postoperative wound disruptions (p?=?0.001, p?<?0.001, p?=?0.035, and p?=?0.016, respectively). Multiple logistic regression showed that the presence of a subgaleal fluid collection before cranioplasty significantly increased the risk of GIC (OR: 38.53; 95 % CI: 2.77–535.6; p?=?0.006).

Conclusions

The results of this study suggest that long operative times (> 120 min), craniectomy with temporalis muscle resection, the presence of preoperative subgaleal fluid collection, and postoperative wound disruption may be risk factors for graft infection after cranioplasty. Surgical techniques should be developed to reduce operative time and to avoid temporalis muscle resection when possible. In addition, meticulous dural closure aimed at reducing the formation of subgaleal fluid collection is important for the prevention of graft infections after cranioplasty.     

Clinical and ossification outcome of custom-made hydroxyapatite prothese for large skull defect

ObjectiveCranioplasty is an everyday concern in neurosurgery, especially in decompressive craniectomy cases. Our surgical team uses custom-made hydroxyapatite implants for large and/or complex defects.Patients and methodEight patients had a custom-made prosthesis. Each of them has been reviewed by an independent observer. Each patient described his feeling of satisfaction, using a questionnaire, graduated from “A” (really satisfied) to “D” (unsatisfied). Each of them also underwent a CT-scan (helicoidal acquisition, 0.6 mm thick for multiplanar reconstruction) to evaluate qualitatively the ossification graduated from “0” (no ossification) to “5” (continuous ossification). Maximal under-prosthetic bone thickness, intra-prosthetic calcic density were also reported.ResultsSupervision delay was 43.7 months [6–99 months], average defect surface was 85.5 cm² [27.6–137.6 cm²], the craniectomy etiologies were intracranial hypertension (seven patients) and calvarial invasion (one patient). Implant tolerance was reparted in “A” score (50%) and “B” score (50%). Concerning ossification, six patients (75%) had a score of “2” or less and two patients had a score of “3” or “4”.DiscussionHydroxyapatite custom-made implants for cranioplasty appear to be ideal for good aesthetic and tolerance results, but their ossification is hardly analyzed due to the prosthesis density higher than the bone's density. This is why we recommend them for children and in cases of complex defects such as pterion location.     

Use of hinge craniotomy for cerebral decompression. Technical note

Decompressive craniectomy to relieve cerebral edema and intracranial hypertension due to traumatic brain injury is a generally accepted practice; however, the procedure remains controversial because of its uncertain effects on outcome, specific complications such as the syndrome of the sinking skin flap, and the need for subsequent cranioplasty. The authors developed a novel craniotomy technique using titanium bone plates in a hinged fashion, which maintains cerebral protection while reducing postoperative complications and eliminating subsequent cranioplasty procedures. The authors conducted a retrospective review of data obtained in all consecutive patients who had undergone posttraumatic cerebral decompression craniotomy using the hinge technique at a Level I trauma facility between 1990 and 2004. Twenty-five patients, most of whom were male (88%) and Caucasian (88%) with a mean age of 38.2 +/- 16.1 years, underwent the hinge craniotomy. The in-hospital mortality rate was 48%, and good cerebral decompression was achieved. None of the patients required surgery for flap replacement. Long-term follow-up data showed that one patient required subsequent cranioplasty due to infection and one patient presented with cranial deformities. None of the patients presented with bone resorption or sinking flap syndrome. The hinge technique effectively prevents procedure-related morbidity and the need for subsequent surgical bone replacement otherwise introduced by traditional decompressive craniectomy. A randomized controlled trial is required to substantiate these findings.     

Calvarial reconstruction using high-density porous polyethylene cranial hemispheres

Aims:

Cranial vault reconstruction can be performed with a variety of autologous or alloplastic materials. We describe our experience using high-density porous polyethylene (HDPE) cranial hemisphere for cosmetic and functional restoration of skull defects. The porous nature of the implant allows soft tissue ingrowth, which decreases the incidence of infection. Hence, it can be used in proximity to paranasal sinuses and where previous alloplastic cranioplasties have failed due to implant infection.

Materials and Methods:

We used the HDPE implant in seven patients over a three-year period for reconstruction of moderate to large cranial defects. Two patients had composite defects, which required additional soft tissue in the form of free flap and tissue expansion.

Results:

In our series, decompressive craniectomy following trauma was the commonest aetiology and all defects were located in the fronto-parieto-temporal region. The defect size was 10 cm on average in the largest diameter. All patients had good post-operative cranial contour and we encountered no infections, implant exposure or implant migration.

Conclusions:

Our results indicate that the biocompatibility and flexibility of the HDPE cranial hemisphere implant make it an excellent alternative to existing methods of calvarial reconstruction.KEY WORDS: Calvarial defect, Cranioplasty, high-density porous polyethylene cranial hemispheres     

Intraoperative vasopressors and thrombotic complications in free flap breast reconstruction

Objective: The purpose of this study was to critically examine intraoperative vasopressor usage as it relates to free flap perfusion and its effect on perioperative complications in autologous breast reconstruction.

Methods: A retrospective cohort study was performed involving all free autologous breast reconstructions at a single institution over a 5 year period. Data collection focused on perioperative care, specifically fluid administration, urine output (UOP), use of vasopressors, and case duration. Outcomes included major intraoperative and postoperative complications. Patients who received intraoperative vasopressors were compared to all patients who did not. The use, type, and timing of the vasopressor agent were assessed with standard statistical analyses and regression modelling.

Results: Six hundred and eighty-two patients reconstructed with 1039 flaps were included. Of these, 475 (69.6%) patients received vasopressors. The vasopressor cohort was older (p?=?0.001), with higher rates of hypertension (p?=?0.02). They had a greater number of hypotensive episodes (2.3 vs 0.8, p?p?=?0.004). Examining complications, no increase in intraoperative thrombotic events (arterial or venous) or flap loss was noted with vasopressor administration. A higher rate of minor complications was, however, noted (53.1% vs 43.0%, p?=?0.016).

Conclusions: This study demonstrates that the use of intraoperative vasopressor agents in the anaesthetic care of free flap breast reconstruction patients is common, but likely does not impact thrombotic events or flap loss. Minor complications may, however, be more common in these patients.     

Markers of blood coagulation and fibrinolysis in patients with early and delayed microsurgical reconstructions in the lower extremities

Background: In this study, markers of coagulation and fibrinolysis were assessed during early and delayed microsurgical reconstruction in patients with traumatic defects of their lower legs to analyse whether an imbalance of the hemostasis after trauma might predispose the development of vascular complications.

Methods: The prospective study included 70 patients. In 35 patients, surgery was performed within 72?hours after injury. In 35 other patients, delayed free flap transfer was performed between 14–21?days after trauma. In each group, reconstruction was performed with a fasciocutaneous anterior-lateral thigh flap (ALT, n?=?18) or a myocutaneous flap (latissimus dorsi flap; n?=?17). Blood samples were collected preoperatively, intraoperatively, and 3, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, 72, 96 and 120?hours after the operation. Analysed parameters included markers of coagulation such as prothrombin fragment 1?+?2 (F1?+?2), thrombin-antithrombin III-complex (TAT), and antithrombin, as well as fibrinolysis markers such as plasminogenactivator inhibitor-I (PAI-1), tissue-plasminogenactivator (t-PA), and plasminogen.

Results: Preoperatively, levels of F1?+?2, TAT, and PAI-1 were significantly higher in patients with delayed reconstruction (p?n?=?5) presented a significant higher concentration of TAT, F1?+?2, and PAI-1 (p?p?Conclusions: Patients with delayed free flap surgery after lower leg trauma present a hypercoagulable state in their blood due to activation of the coagulation system and hypofibrinolysis. Early reconstruction might minimise the risk of flap failure caused by hypercoagulability.