表阿霉素黏膜下浸润注射加单次灌注预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发的研究

目的　探讨表阿霉素膀胱黏膜下浸润注射和术后立即单次膀胱灌注预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发的临床效果。　方法　浅表性膀胱癌 36例 ,Ta10例 ,T12 6例 ;G111例 ,G2 2 0例 ,G3 5例 ,均行膀胱部分切除。术中采用 1mg/ml浓度的表阿霉素多中心膀胱黏膜下浸润注射 ,总量 30mg。手术结束时立即单次膀胱灌注表阿霉素 12 0mg。 36例患者术后随访 1～ 4年 ,平均 2 .8年。　结果　 36例患者术后 1、2、3年无瘤生存率分别为 10 0 .0 %、91.7%、88.9% ,总复发率 11.1% ( 4 / 36 )。手术前后肝肾功能及心电图无显著性变化。术后早期并发症主要为血尿和膀胱刺激症状 ,膀胱局部毒性反应发生率为 2 7.8% ( 10 / 36 ) ,全身性毒性反应发生率 8.3% ( 3/ 36 )。　结论　术中多中心表阿霉素膀胱黏膜下浸润注射结合单次膀胱灌注预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发效果良好 ,操作简便 ,费用低 ,毒副作用小     

表阿霉素单次膀胱灌注预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发的前瞻性随机对照研究

目的　比较单次、多次表阿霉素和丝裂霉素、BCG膀胱腔内灌注预防浅表性膀胱移行细胞癌术后复发的作用。　方法　前瞻性随机对照研究 ,12 3例患者分为 4组 ,A组在术后 6h内表阿霉素 80mg单次灌注 ,B组、C组和D组分别于术后 2周内表阿霉素 4 0mg、丝裂霉素 2 0mg、BCG12 0mg多次灌注 ,观察术后复发率和无肿瘤间期及副作用发生情况。　结果　随访期 10～ 2 5个月 ,平均 18.6个月。A组复发率 18.8%、B组 14 .7%、C组 2 0 .7%、D组 17.9%。各组之间复发率及Ka plan Meier无肿瘤间期分析显示差异均无显著性意义 (P >0 .0 5 ) ,BCG组副作用明显高于其他 3组(P <0 .0 5 )。　结论　表阿霉素单次膀胱腔内灌注对预防早期、分化良好的初发浅表性膀胱移行细胞癌术后复发效果可靠 ,副作用发生率低 ,且费用低廉。     

钬激光加表阿霉素单次灌注治疗浅表性膀胱癌(附22例报告)

目的研究钬激光(Ho:YAG)加术后表阿霉素单次灌注治疗浅表性膀胱癌的临床疗效。方法自2001年1月至2002年5月,采用经尿道腔内钬激光(Ho:YAG)切除肿瘤加术后表阿霉素单次灌注治疗浅表性膀胱癌22例,其中单发肿瘤16例,多发肿瘤6例。病理分级移行细胞癌G1~G2、分期T1~T2。结果手术一次性成功,时间15~40min,术中无闭孔神经反射,无膀胱穿孔、大出血。术后灌注表阿霉素后无不良反应,1例6个月后复发,复发率4.5%,再次予钬激光处理治愈。结论钬激光加表阿霉素单次灌注治疗浅表性膀胱癌,复发率较低,是安全有效,方便易行的治疗方法。     

单次腔内灌注吡柔比星预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发

目的 通过对吡柔比星单次与多次灌注预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发的对比研究,探讨临床应用吡柔比星单次腔内灌注预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发的可行性.方法 将42例浅表性膀胱癌患者随机分为两组.A组(22例)患者术后即刻单次灌注吡柔比星50 mg;B组(20例)术后定期灌注吡柔比星30 mg至术后半年.随访3年,观察两组肿瘤复发率及不良反应发生情况.结果 肿瘤复发情况:A组3例复发;B组4例复发.两组间复发率差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).不良反应发生情况:A组无一例不良反应发生;B组20例均有不同程度不良反应发生,其中4例较重.两组间不良反应发生率差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).结论 吡柔比星单次腔内灌注预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发作用可靠,且无不良反应发生.     

表阿霉素膀胱灌注预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发的疗效观察

目的　探讨表阿霉素膀胱灌注防治浅表性膀胱癌术后复发的疗效。　方法　应用表阿霉素对 32例浅表性膀胱癌行经尿道膀胱肿瘤电切术或膀胱部分切除术后患者早期一次性膀胱腔内灌注 ,定期膀胱镜检查和随访。　结果　 32例术后随访 12～ 2 4个月 ,平均 18个月 ,4例于术后 3～ 8个月复发 ,复发率 13% ,无药物反应和并发症发生。　结论　表阿霉素早期单次膀胱腔内灌注预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发疗效肯定、毒副反应小 ,有较高的临床价值。     

单次腔内灌注表柔比星预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发

目的探讨临床应用柔比星单次腔内灌注预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发的可行性。方法 了解表柔比星单次与多次灌汪预防表性膀胱癌术后复发的长期疗效,并与丝裂霉素疗效比较。将47例浅表性膀胱癌（Ta-1,G1－2）入选患者随机分为3组,A组（16例）患者术后6h内单次灌注表柔比星80mg;B组（15例）术后定期灌注柔比星40mg,至术后1年;C组（16例）用药为丝裂霉素,剂量及用法同B组。对入选病例行前瞻性、随机对照临床研究,随访患者无瘤生存间期、肿瘤复发率及不良反应发生情况。对所有患者术后密切随访满3年。结果 发现3年患者术后3年无病间期差异无显著性意义（F＝3．25,P＞0．05）。3组膀胱癌病例中术后1年复发情况分别为：A组1例（6．25％）、B组2例（13．3％）、C组2例（12．5％）,其差异无显著意义（χ^2＝0．496,P＞0．05）。3年复发情况分别为：A组5例（33．3％）,B组和C组各4例（26．7％,25．0％）,其差异亦无显著意义（χ^2＝0．290,P＞0．05）。不良反应发生情况分别为：A组2例（13．3％）、B组7例（（46．7％）、C组7例（43．8％）,A组患者不良反应发生率显著低于B、C2组（χ^2＝14．56,P＜0．01）。结论 表柔比星腔内灌注预防浅表性膀胱癌术后远期复发的作用可靠,可作为浅表性膀胱术后患者有效的临床辅助治疗措施。     

短期与长期腔内灌注吡柔比星预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发

目的　比较短期和长期腔内灌注吡柔比星预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发。方法　 5 6例浅表性膀胱癌患者术后随机分为两组 ,A组 ( 2 8例 )吡柔比星 3 0mg ,每周 1次 ,共 8次 ;B组 ( 2 8例 )前 8次灌注同A组 ,以后改为每月 1次至术后 1年。随访 2年 ,观察肿瘤复发率和副反应发生情况。结果　 1年肿瘤复发率 :A组 2例( 7.2 %)、B组 1例 ( 3 .7%) ,差异无显著性 ( X2 =0 .5 76,P >0 .0 5 )。 2年肿瘤复发率 :A组 3例 ( 10 .7%)、B组 4例( 14 .3 %) ,差异亦无显著性 (X2 =0 .3 84,P >0 .0 5 )。副反应发生情况 :A组 3例 ( 10 .7%)、B组 8例 ( 2 8.6%) ,A组患者不良反应发生率低于B组 (X2 =12 .3 6,P <0 .0 1)。结论　吡柔比星短期腔内灌注预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发疗效肯定 ,副作用小     

短期与长期腔内灌注吡柔比星预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发的比较

目的 :比较短期和长期腔内灌注吡柔比星对预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发的效果。方法 :将 5 6例浅表性膀胱癌患者术后随机分为两组 ,A组 (2 8例 )行吡柔比星 30mg膀胱灌注 ,每周 1次 ,共 8次 ;B组 (2 8例 )前 8次灌注同A组 ,以后改为每月 1次至术后 1年。随访 2年 ,观察肿瘤复发率和副反应发生情况。结果 :1年肿瘤复发率 :A组 2例 (7.2 % ) ,B组 1例 (3.7% ) ,差异无统计学意义 (χ2 =0 .5 76 ,P >0 .0 5 )。 2年肿瘤复发率 :A组 3例 (10 .7% ) ,B组 4例 (14 .3% ) ,差异亦无统计学意义 (χ2 =0 .384 ,P >0 .0 5 )。副反应发生情况 :A组 3例(10 .7% ) ,B组 8例 (2 8.6 % ) ,A组不良反应发生率低于B组 (χ2 =12 .36 ,P <0 .0 1)。结论 :吡柔比星短期腔内灌注预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发疗效肯定 ,副作用小。     

不同时期膀胱内灌注丝裂霉素C预防浅表性膀胱癌电切术后复发的比较研究

目的 对比评价不同时期膀胱内灌注丝裂霉素C对浅表性膀胱癌电切术后复发率和术后不良反应发生率的影响.方法 123例膀胱癌患者,其中移行细胞癌G1 37例,G2 73例,G3 13例.均行经尿道膀胱肿瘤电切术,随机分为2组,A组(术后即刻行膀胱内灌注化疗)63例,B组(术后7天开始膀胱内灌注化疗)60例,分别采用丝裂霉素C行膀胱内灌注,观察2组肿瘤复发情况、毒副反应.结果 随访18～36个月,A组复发12 例(19. 0% ).灌注期间,10例(15.9%)出现不良反应,B组复发22 例(36.7%).灌注期间,7例(11. 7%)出现不良反应.结论 术后即刻行膀胱内灌注丝裂霉素C能够减少浅表性膀胱癌的复发率,但不增加不良反应的发生率.     

介入治疗联合膀胱灌注预防膀胱癌术后复发的临床价值

目的　探讨介入治疗联合膀胱灌注丝裂霉素C(MMC)预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发的临床价值。　方法　 2 8例浅表性膀胱癌患者局部手术后随机分为二组 ,每组 14例。分别采用介入治疗加膀胱灌注MMC和MMC单纯膀胱灌注治疗。　结果　 2 8例随访 12～ 2 6个月 ,平均 2 1个月。介入加灌注组肿瘤复发 1例 ,单纯MMC灌注组肿瘤复发 4例 ,两组肿瘤复发率差异有显著性意义 (P <0 .0 5 )。　结论　介入治疗联合膀胱灌注MMC预防浅表性膀胱癌术后复发疗效较好 ,副反应少 ,临床应用安全可靠     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.