The relation of different inflammatory cell types to the various parenchymal components of rejecting kidney allografts

Histochemical and immunoperoxidase techniques were used to characterize the spatial relationships of various inflammatory cell types to the different transplant structures in human renal allograft rejection. T lymphocytes were identified by acid α-naphthyl acetate esterase (ANAE) staining, plasma cells by intracyto-plasmic immunoglobulin, mononuclear phagocytes by intracytoplasmic 'dispersed' ANAE reaction and/or lysozyme staining and granulocytes by intra-cellular lactoferrin. In the two cases of acute rejection the infiltrate around the blood vessels consisted mainly of lymphocytes, whereas the infiltrate around the tubules and within the glomerular tufts consisted mainly of mononuclear phagocytes. In acute rejection only a few plasma cells and granulocytes were seen. In the single case of chronic rejection studied, the lymphocytes were no longer concentrated exclusively around the blood vessels, but diffusely distributed throughout the kidney parenchyma. The different distribution of various inflammatory cells may reflect differences in the functions of these cell types in graft destruction.     

Stroke volume response to progressive exercise in athletes engaged in different types of training

Summary Using the impedance cardiography method, heart rate ( _c) matched changes on indexed stroke volume (SI) and cardiac output (CI) were compared in subjects engaged in different types of training. The subjects consisted of untrained controls (C), volleyball players (VB) who spent about half of their training time (360 min · week^–1) doing anaerobic conditioning exercises and who had a maximal oxygen uptake ( ) 41% higher than the controls, and distance runners (D) who spent all their training time (366 min·week^–1) doing aerobic conditioning exercises and who had a 26% higher than VB. The subjects performed progressive submaximal cycle ergometer exercise (10 W·min^–1) up to _c of 150 beats·min^–1. In group C, SI had increased significantly (P<0.05) at _c of 90 beats·min^–1 ( + 32%) and maintained this difference up to 110 beats·min^–1, only to return to resting values on reaching 130 beats·min^–1 with no further changes. In group VB, SI peaked (+ 54%) at _c of 110 beats·min^–1, reaching a value significantly higher than that of group C, but decreased progressively to 22010 of the resting value on reaching 150 beats·min^–1. In group D, SI peaked at _c of 130 beats·min^–1 (+ 54%), reaching a value significantly higher than that of group VB, and showed no significant reduction with respect to this peak value on reaching 150 beats·min^–1. As a consequence, the mean CI increase per _c unit was progressively higher in VB than in C (+46%) and in D than in VB (+ 105%). It was concluded that thef _c value at which SI ceased to increase during incremental exercise was closely related to the endurance component in the training programme.     

Hormonal and metabolic response to three types of exercise of equal duration and external work output

Summary Five normal men, aged 20–30 years, participated in three types of exercise (I, II, III) of equal duration (20 min) and total external work output (120–180 kJ) separated by ten days of rest. Exercises consisted of seven sets of squats with barbells on the shoulders (I; Maximal Power Output _max=600−900 W), continuous cycling at 50 rev · min⁻¹ (II; _max=100−150 W) and seven bouts of intermittent cycling at 70 rev · min⁻¹ (III; _max=300−450 W). Plasma cortisol, glucagon and lactate increased significantly (P<0.05) during the exercise and recovery periods of the anaerobic, intermittent exercise (I and III) but not in the continuous, aerobic exercise (II). No consistent significant changes were found in plasma glucose. Plasma insulin levels decreased only during exercise II. The highest increase in cortisol and glucagon was not associated with the highest , , _max or HR; however it was associated with the anaerobic component of exercise (lactic acid). It is suggested that in exercises of equal duration and total external work output, the continuous, aerobic exercise (II) led to lowest levels of glucogenic hormones.     

Divergence of the inflammatory response in two types of chickens

We compared inflammatory responses to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection in laying type (Brown Nick) to broiler type (Avian x Avian) chicks. Rectal temperature was measured at 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 12, and 24h after LPS injection (0, 0.1, 0.3, 0.6, 1, 2.5, or 5mg/kg bw). In layers, rectal temperature increased from 41.31+/-0.19 degrees C to a maximum 42.27+/-0.41 degrees C at 4h after 1mg/kg LPS. Relative to layers, the febrile response in broilers was considerably lower, delayed in onset, and required higher levels of LPS (5mg/kg). Proliferation of spleen cells from un-injected chicks in response to LPS, PHA, and Con A was evaluated in vitro. IFNgamma, TGFbeta(2), MGF and IL-1beta relative to beta-actin mRNA expression were analyzed in spleen cells stimulated with LPS. Splenocytes from layers had a higher proliferative response to LPS (P=0.045), but lower proliferative response to PHA (P=0.004) and Con A (P=0.004) than broilers. Expression of mRNA for MGF, IL-1beta and IFNgamma was lower in broilers than in layers (P<0.001). Reduced production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines in broilers could have resulted from the observed increased production of the immunosuppressive cytokine TGFbeta(2.) These differences in cytokine expression may explain the blunted febrile response in broilers compared to layers. Because the acute phase response of inflammation causes decreased food intake, the blunted inflammatory response of broilers may permit faster growth.     

Effect of magnesium on granulocyte function and on the exercise induced inflammatory response.

Magnesium status is a well-known modulator of the immune system. In the present study we investigated the effect of magnesium on granulocyte signalling and function. Furthermore, we performed a double-blinded randomised study investigating the effect of a two-month magnesium supplementation period on the exercise-associated alterations in immune function. In vitro incubation of granulocytes in media of different magnesium composition resulted in significant changes in chemotactic peptide-induced calcium transients while basal calcium levels were not affected. Likewise, the stimulus-induced formation of free radicals was affected by extracellular magnesium while phagocytosis of granulocytes was not affected. In the second part of the study we investigated whether a two-month period of magnesium supplementation was able to diminish alterations in immune cell counts and functions after an exercise test until exhaustion. The magnesium status was similar in both human and placebo groups and did not change significantly after the supplementation period. Exhaustive exercise induced an activation of the immune system as indicated by an increase in granulocyte count and a post-exercise lymphopenia. In addition, chemotactic peptide-induced cellular calcium transients were enhanced post-exercise while oxidative burst and phagocytosis were decreased. These results suggest that magnesium is an important modulator of immune cell function under in vitro conditions. However, a magnesium supplementation seems to be unable to prevent any exercise-associated alterations in immune cell function in athletes with balanced magnesium status.     

Transferability of workload measurements between three different types of ergometer

The aim of this study was to test the transferability of workload measurements between three different types of bicycle ergometer. Two common ergometers (Lode Excalibur and Avantronic Cyclus 2) were compared with a powermeter (Schoberer SRM system) that enables the measurement of power output during road cycling. Twelve well-trained subjects participated in this study. Within 12 h, each subject carried out three separate graded incremental exercise tests on each of the ergometric devices, and their oxygen uptake (V˙O₂) and heart rate were determined. The three test protocols were identical: after warm-up, four stages of 4 min each at exercise intensities of 100, 150, 200, and 250 W. Pedalling frequency was controlled and there was no difference between the three ergometers. Tests were administered in a random order. Neither V˙O₂ nor heart rate was affected by the type of ergometer used. For a given intensity, the same values were found in the two laboratory tests and in the field test (V˙O₂: P=0.425; heart rate: P=0.845). Thus, the transferability of workload measurements between two different laboratory cycling ergometers and an ambulatory device was proven. Equivalency was determined using V˙O₂ and heart rate as indices of metabolic and cardiovascular strain, respectively. Accepted: 16 February 2000     

Physical working capacity determined by different types of bicycle exercise tests

Forty-three pairs and 10 triplets of bicycle exercise tests were performed. Seven different workload incremental procedures were used. Triplets and nine pairs of tests were performed by healthy subjects (n = 19) and 34 pairs of tests by patients (n = 19) 3 and 15 months after coronary by-pass operation. From each test result a hypothetical maximal workload sustainable for 6 min (Wmax6') was calculated. The two and three Wmax6' values obtained for each pair and each triplet of tests, respectively, were compared. The ratios between the corresponding Wmax6' values were 1.00 +/- 0.01 (mean +/- SE) for healthy subjects and 0.96 +/- 0.03 for patients. It is concluded that working capacities determined by bicycle exercise tests with different workload incremental procedures can be compared via the Wmax6'.     

Impact of elevated ambient temperatures on the acute immune response to intensive endurance exercise

To date, there has been little research examining how elevated ambient temperatures exert an additional effect on the acute immune response to endurance exercise. Seven endurance-trained, non-heat-acclimated men [mean (95% confidence interval): 29.7 (25.9–33.5) years, V˙O_2max 66.3 (61.3–71.3) ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹] performed two 60-min treadmill runs (75% V˙O_2max) in two different environments (EX1: 18°C/50% room temperature/relative humidity and EX2: 28°C/50% room temperature/relative humidity) with a 7-day interval between the runs. Blood samples were drawn at rest and 0, 0.5, 3, 24, and 48 h after exercise. Compared to EX1, exercise-induced increases in core temperature, sweating rate, heart rate, plasma norepinephrine, cortisol, human growth hormone, and neutrophil and monocyte counts were significantly (5% level) more pronounced after EX2. In contrast, responses of plasma epinephrine, myeloperoxidase, interleukin (IL)-6 as well as lymphocyte counts were similar in EX1 and EX2. Plasma concentrations of IL-8 and C-reactive protein were affected by neither exercise nor by additional heat exposure. Our results suggest that the additional impact of elevated ambient temperatures on stress responses to endurance exercise in trained subjects seems to affect primarily the cardiocirculatory and hormonal systems, and resulting changes in neutrophil and monocyte cell-trafficking. In contrast, heat stress does not seem to exert large additional effects on the acute immune response to endurance exercise as performed in the present study. Electronic Publication     

Different responses of selected hormones to three types of exercise in young men

Exercise is a potent stimulus for release of growth hormone (GH), cortisol, testosterone and prolactin, and prolonged exercise inhibits insulin secretion. These responses seem to be specific to the type of exercise but this has been poorly characterised primarily because they have not been compared during exercise performed by the same individuals. We investigated hormone responses to resistance, sprint and endurance exercise in young men using a repeated measures design in which each subject served as their own control. Eight healthy non-obese young adults (18–25 years) were studied on four occasions in random order: 30-s cycle ergometer sprint (Sprint), 30-min resistance exercise bout (Resistance), 30-min cycle at 70 % VO_2max (Endurance), and seated rest in the laboratory (Rest). Cortisol, GH, testosterone, prolactin, insulin and glucose concentrations were measured for 60 min after the four different interventions. Endurance and sprint exercise significantly increased GH, cortisol, prolactin and testosterone. Sprint exercise also increased insulin concentrations, whereas this decreased in response to endurance exercise. Resistance exercise significantly increased only testosterone and glucose. Sprint exercise elicited the largest response per unit of work, but the smallest response relative to mean work rate in all hormones. In conclusion, the nature and magnitude of the hormone response were influenced by exercise type, perhaps reflecting the roles of these hormones in regulating metabolism during and after resistance, sprint and endurance exercise.     

Effect of different types of resistance exercise on arterial compliance and calf blood flow

Low-intensity blood flow restricted (LI-BFR) resistance training has been shown to produce comparable increases in muscle hypertrophy to traditional high-intensity (HI) resistance training. However, a comparison of the acute vascular responses between the two types of exercise has not been made. The purpose of this study is to compare the acute vascular responses of HI, low-intensity (LI), and LI-BFR resistance exercise. Using a randomized, cross-over design, 11 young (28 ± 5 years) males completed three acute resistance exercise bouts (HI, LI and LI-BFR). Before (Pre), and starting at 15- and 45-min after each exercise bout, large (LAEI) and small (SAEI) artery compliance and calf blood flow were assessed. Calf blood flow was normalized per unit pressure as calf vascular conductance (CVC). Repeated measures (condition × time) ANOVA revealed a main time effect for LAEI and a main condition effect for SAEI. LAEI increased following exercise but returned to baseline at 45-min post. SAEI was greater during the HI condition compared to the LI or LI-BFR conditions. There was a significant condition × time interaction for CVC. CVC was elevated at 15- and 45-min post during the HI condition and at 15-min following the LI condition. CVC was not altered following the LI-BFR condition. These results suggest that HI, LI, and LI-BFR resistance exercise cause similar acute increases in large artery compliance but HI causes greater increases in small artery compliance and calf vascular conductance than LI or LI-BFR resistance exercise.     

Mast cells and the inflammatory response to different implanted biomaterials

The biocompatibility of dental materials is a topic of increasing importance for dentists. We investigated the effects of alloys for ceramic crowns and removable prostheses on the skin and lymphoid organs of rats. We used three groups of Sprague Dawley rats: group I as the control, with groups II and III implanted with different biomaterials into subcutaneous pockets. After sacrifice, the rat skin around the implant and the lymph nodes was studied. The tissues of implanted rats were morphologically different from the control animals as they showed a number of mast cells that increased 7 days after the implant with both alloys. These cells decreased 14 days after the implant with alloy for ceramic crowns whereas they were still high 28 days after the implant with alloy for removable prostheses. The findings suggest that both alloys induced different and time-dependent inflammatory reactions. Our findings have importance in the future rational design of biocompatible implantable and blood-contact biomaterials.     

Immunohistopathological appearance of three different types of injury in human skin

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN: To determine whether underlying mechanisms of inflammation, like cellular infiltrates, expression of adhesion molecule and cytokine patterns are similar under different conditions of injury. Skin biopsies were taken of three different groups of patients in which local inflammation of the skin might occur. MATERIAL, PATIENTS: Skin activation was studied as a result of incision during surgery under aseptic conditions, as a result of a local bacterial infection and as a result of blunt trauma, resulting in a femoral fracture, without disruption of the epithelial barrier. METHODS: Skin biopsies were snap frozen for immunohistochemical analysis. RESULTS: Incision of the skin resulted in a granulocyte infiltrate, paralleled by E-selectin expression. As a result of infection granulocytes were observed and monocyte/macrophage and T cell numbers were increased. Furthermore, E-selectin, VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 expression increased and cytokine expression markedly changed compared to normal skin. Skin taken at the site of the femoral fracture showed no signs of inflammation. CONCLUSION: Different stimuli lead to different local inflammatory responses in human skin.     

The effects of different types of aquatic exercise training interventions on a high-fructose diet-fed mice

Gradual weight gain in modern people and a lowering onset age of metabolic disease are highly correlated with the intake of sugary drinks and sweets. Long-term excessive fructose consumption can lead to hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia and accumulation of visceral fat. Abdominal obesity is more severe in females than in males. In this study, we used a high-fructose-diet-induced model of obesity in female mice. We investigated the effects of aquatic exercise training on body weight and body composition. After 1 week of acclimatization, female ICR mice were randomly divided into two groups: a normal group (n=8) fed standard diet (control), and a high-fructose diet (HFD) group (n=24) fed a HFD. After 4 weeks of induction followed by 4 weeks of aquatic exercise training, the 24 obese mice were divided into 3 groups (n=8 per group): HFD with sedentary control (HFD), HFD with aquatic strength exercise training (HFD+SE), and HFD with aquatic aerobic exercise training (HFD+AE). We conducted serum biochemical profile analysis, weighed the white adipose tissue, and performed organ histopathology. After 4 weeks of induction and 4 weeks of aquatic exercise training, there was no significant difference in body weight among the HFD, HFD+SE and HFD+AE groups. Serum triglyceride (TG), AST, ALT, and uric acid level were significantly lower in the HFD+SE and HFD+AE groups than in the HFD group. The weight of the perirenal fat pad was significantly lower in the HFD+AE group than in the HFD group. Hepatic TG and total cholesterol (TC) were significantly lower in the HFD+AE group than in the other groups. Long-term intake of a high-fructose diet can lead to obesity and increase the risk of metabolic disease. Based on our findings, we speculate that aquatic exercise training can effectively promote health and fitness. However, aquatic aerobic exercise training appears to have greater benefits than aquatic strength exercise training.     

VE response to VCO2 during exercise is unaffected by exercise training and different exercise limbs

We designed two experiments to investigate the relationship between ventilation (VE) and CO2 output (VCO2) during exercise under the conditions of exercising different limbs, the arms as opposed to the legs (experiment 1), and of different physical training states after undergoing standard exercise training for 90 d (experiment 2). Six healthy young subjects underwent submaximal ramp exercise at an incremental work rate of 15 W/min for the arm and leg, and 11 healthy middle-aged subjects underwent an incremental exercise test at the rate of 30 W/3 min before and after exercise training. We measured pulmonary breath-by-breath VE, VCO2, oxygen uptake (VO2), tidal volume (VT), breathing frequency (bf), and end-tidal O2 and CO2 pressures (PETO2, PETCO2) via a computerized metabolic cart. In experiment 1, arm exercise produced significantly greater VE than did leg exercise at the same work rates, as well as significantly higher VO2, VCO2, and bf. The slopes of the regression lines in the VE-VCO2 relationship were not significantly different: the values were 27.8 +/- 2.1 (SD) during the arm exercise, and 25.3 +/- 3.9 during the leg exercise, with no differences in their intercepts. In experiment 2, the VO2, VCO2, and VE responses at the same work rates were similar in both before and after the 90-d exercise training, whereas the heart rate (HR) and mean blood pressure (MBP) were significantly reduced after training. Exercise training did not alter the VE-VCO2 relationship, the slope of which was 31.9 +/- 4.9 before exercise training and 34.2 +/- 4.4 after exercise training. We concluded that the VE-VCO2 relationship during exercise is unaltered, independent of not only working muscle regions but also exercise training states.     

Differential cardiorespiratory response to combined exercise with different combinations of forearm and calf exercise

The purpose of this study was to examine whether cardiorespiratory responses to combined rhythmic exercise (60 contractions · min^–1) was affected by different combinations of upper and lower limb exercise in seven healthy women. Six different rhythmic exercises were compared: 6-min rhythmic handgrip at 10% of isometric maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) (H10); 6-min rhythmic plantar flexion at 10% MVC (P10); exhausting rhythmic handgrip at 50% MVC (H50); exhausting rhythmic plantar flexion at 50% MVC (P50); H50 was added to P10 (P1OH50); and P50 was added to H10 (H10P50). Exercise duration, after handgrip was combined with plantar flexion (P10H50), was shorter than that of H50, although the exercise duration of HIOP50 was not significantly different from P50. No significant difference was found between the difference from rest in oxygen uptake ( O₂) during H10P50 and the sum of O₂ during H10 and P50. Also, the differences from rest in forearm blood flow ( FBF) and calf blood flow ( CBF) during H10P50 were not significantly different from FBF in H10 and from CBF in P50. In contrast, O₂ in P10H50 was lower than the sum of O₂ in P10 and H50 (P < 0.05), and J FBF in P10H50 was lower than that in H50 (P < 0.05) , while CBF was not significantly different between P1OH50 and P10. The changes in heart rate from rest (d HR) during the combined exercises were lower than the sums of HR in the corresponding single exercises (P < 0.05). These results demonstrated an inhibitory summation of several cardiorespiratory responses to combined exercise resulting in a reduction in exercise performance which would seem to occur easily when upperlimb exercise is added to lower limb exercise.