The management of paediatric urolithiasis

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of the management of paediatric urolithiasis by extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL), endoscopic ureterolithotomy, percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) and open nephrolithotomy. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In a 3-year period (1997-1999), 59 children were treated for urolithiasis and underwent a total of 79 procedures. Thirty-two ESWL sessions were performed in 23 children (mean age 7.4 years, median 6.0). PCNL was undertaken in 30 renal units in 25 children (mean age 6.4 years, median 4.0). Eight patients (mean age 7.8 years, median 5) underwent 17 ureteroscopic procedures, six of which involved the use of a holmium laser. Three children with staghorn calculi underwent open nephrolithotomy under conditions of renal ischaemia and hypothermia. RESULTS: Of the 23 children treated using ESWL, 21 (91%) became stone-free; 17 underwent one ESWL session (74%), three had two sessions and three (13%) had three sessions. All eight patients who underwent ureteroscopy became stone-free. Four patients in whom the stone could not be reached by ureteroscopy initially had a JJ stent inserted, and the stone and stent subsequently removed. Stones were cleared using PCNL in 27 of 30 renal units (90%); three patients who had residual stone fragments were rendered stone-free by ESWL. Two of three children undergoing open nephrolithotomy were stone-free after surgery and the remaining one rendered stone-free with ESWL. Metabolic evaluation showed that 25 of 45 children (55%) had a urinary infection, eight (18%) had hyperoxaluria, three (7%) had hypercalciuria, two (4%) had cystinuria, and no identifiable cause was found in seven (16%). Treatment by a single modality rendered 52 of the 59 children (88%) stone-free; when the different modalities were combined, 57 of 59 patients (97%) were cleared of their stones. CONCLUSIONS: Technological advances in ESWL, ureteroscopy and PCNL have had a significant effect on the management of urolithiasis in children, allowing a safe and successful outcome. The comprehensive care of children with urolithiasis should include a full metabolic evaluation. Anatomical anomalies contribute to the complexity of many cases, necessitating a close liaison between adult and paediatric urologists, nephrologists and radiologists to optimize stone management in children.     

钬激光碎石术与体外冲击波碎石术治疗输尿管结石的疗效比较

目的　比较输尿管镜钬激光碎石术与体外冲击波碎石术 (ESWL)治疗输尿管结石的有效性和安全性。　方法　采用输尿管镜钬激光碎石术治疗输尿管结石 15 9例 16 8侧 ,其中结石直径≥ 1cm者 76侧 ,<1cm者 92侧。ESWL治疗输尿管结石 319例 334侧 ,其中结石直径≥ 1cm者 14 3侧 ,<1cm者 191侧。比较两组手术时间 结石排净率 手术并发症发生率指标的差异。　结果　对直径≥ 1cm和 <1cm的输尿管结石钬激光碎石术治疗平均手术时间分别为 5 8min和 4 3min ,短于ESWL的平均手术时间 6 8min和 5 6min(P <0 .0 1) ;钬激光碎石术对直径≥ 1cm的输尿管结石 3个月结石排净率为 92 % ,高于ESWL的 6 1% (P <0 .0 1) ;对直径 <1cm的输尿管结石钬激光碎石术和ESWL的 3个月结石排净率分别为 95 %和 85 % (P >0 .0 5 )。钬激光碎石术组并发症发生率为 4 .8%( 8/ 16 8) ,ESWL组无明显并发症发生。　结论　输尿管镜钬激光碎石术治疗直径≥ 1cm的输尿管结石疗效明显优于ESWL ,而直径 <1cm的结石二者疗效差异无显著性 ,ESWL为直径 <1cm结石的首选治疗方法     

Open stone surgery: Is it still a preferable procedure in the management of staghorn calculi?

We reviewed 43 patients with staghorn calculi to determine the effectiveness of various treatment modalities such as extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) monotherapy, ESWL and percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) combined therapy, and open stone surgery. While ESWL monotherapy and ESWL+PCNL were performed in 25 and 8 patients, respectively, 10 patients underwent open stone surgery. Of the 25 patients treated with ESWL, 8 were stone-free, whereas 4 out of 8 patients treated with ESWL+PCNL and 8 out of 10 patients treated with open surgery were stone-free. The complications of ESWL monotherapy consisted of pyelonephritis in one patient, and stone street formations in three. In the group of ESWL+PCNL, one patient developed pyonephrosis, and another perinephritic abscess. No serious complication was noted in patients who underwent open surgery, but an average of 525 ml of blood transfusion was required. We conclude that open stone surgery, although invasive, is still beneficial in the treatment of staghorn calculi. Presented at the 10th Congress of the European Association of Urology, July 1992, Genoa.     

Treatment of proximal ureteral calculi: holmium:YAG laser ureterolithotripsy versus extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy

PURPOSE: We compared the safety and efficacy of ureteroscopy with intracorporeal holmium:YAG laser lithotripsy and extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) (Dornier Medical Systems, Inc., Marietta, Georgia) for proximal ureteral calculi. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 67 patients underwent 81 primary procedures, including in situ ESWL with a DoLi 50 lithotriptor (Dornier Medical Systems, Inc.) or ureteroscopy combined with holmium:YAG laser lithotripsy for proximal ureteral calculi. RESULTS: Of the primary procedures 81 involved proximal ureteral calculi, including 35 done for calculi 1 cm. or greater. The initial stone-free rate in patients with calculi 1 cm. or greater was 93% for ureteroscopy combined with holmium:YAG laser lithotripsy and 50% for in situ ESWL. The efficiency quotient for treating proximal ureteral calculi 1 cm. or greater was calculated as 0.76 for ureteroscopic lithotripsy and 0.43 for ESWL. For proximal ureteral calculi less than 1 cm. the initial stone-free rate was 100% and 80% for ureteroscopic laser lithotripsy and ESWL, respectively. The efficiency quotient was calculated as 0.81 for ureteroscopic lithotripsy and 0.72 for ESWL for treating proximal ureteral calculi less than 1 cm. There were no major complications in either group and all procedures were performed on an outpatient basis. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrates that ureteroscopy combined with holmium:YAG laser lithotripsy is an acceptable treatment modality for all proximal ureteral calculi and excellent results are achieved for calculi 1 cm. or larger. Although the stone-free rate was better for smaller stones with ureteroscopic laser lithotripsy, efficiency quotients were similar. Therefore, ESWL should remain first line therapy for proximal ureteral calculi less than 1 cm. because of less morbidity, and a lesser anesthesia and analgesic requirement.     

Management of pediatric urolithiasis in Pakistan: experience with 1,440 children

PURPOSE: We evaluated the efficacy and safety of different modalities for pediatric urolithiasis in a developing country in 2 eras, namely before and after the advent of minimally invasive surgery. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the records of 1,440 children younger than 14 years treated with various modalities during a 14-year period. From 1987 to 1995, 486 and 50 patients were treated with open surgery, and extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL, Dornier Medical Systems, Inc., Marietta, Georgia) and minimally invasive methods, respectively. Between 1996 and 2000, 518 and 386 children were treated with surgery and minimally invasive methods, respectively. RESULTS: Of the 1,440 children 795 (55.2%) had renal, 198 (13.8%) had ureteral and 447 (31%) had bladder calculi. Of the renal stones 556 (70%), 177 (22%) and 62 (7.8%) were treated with open surgery, ESWL and percutaneous nephrolithotomy, respectively. Of the ureteral calculi 85 (43%), 37 (18.6%) and 76 (38%) were managed by ESWL, ureterorenoscopy and open surgery, respectively. Of the bladder calculi 307 (68%), 77 (17.2%) and 63 (14%) were treated with open vesicolithotomy, transurethral pneumatic cystolithotripsy and ESWL, respectively. The renal stone clearance rate was 98% after open surgery, 84% after ESWL and 68% after percutaneous nephrolithotomy monotherapy at 3 months of followup. Similarly the ureteral stone-free rate was 54% after ESWL and 86.9% after ureterorenoscopy. Of the patients with bladder calculi 48% and 93% become stone-free after ESWL and transurethral pneumatic cystolithotripsy, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The use of ESWL, percutaneous nephrolithotomy and ureterorenoscopy has resulted in treating a large number of children with a short hospital stay and early return to school. Open surgery is reserved only for complex stones.     

腔内泌尿外科工作站在上尿路结石中的综合应用

目的:探讨多尼尔腔内泌尿外科工作站在上尿路结石一站式微创治疗的功效。方法:总结262例上尿路结石患者经输尿管镜钬激光碎石术、微造瘘经皮肾镜钬激光碎石术、ESWL的临床资料。结果:239例患者一次碎石成功(91.2%)。结石排净253例(96.5%)。结论:在多尼尔腔内泌尿外科工作站内采用ESWL联合腔内碎石技术的一站式综合治疗,处理上尿路结石具有创伤小、效果好、方便、快捷的优势,值得临床推广应用。     

经皮肾穿刺微造瘘输尿管镜治疗上尿路结石（附156例报告）

目的探讨经皮肾穿刺微造瘘输尿管镜治疗上尿路结石的方法及疗效。方法采用经皮肾穿刺微造瘘输尿管镜下气压弹道碎石处理上尿路结石156冽。结果156例均一期手术取石，单通道取石126例．双通道取石25例，三通道取石5例。其中1次取石120例，2次取石28冽，3次取石8例。136例结石全部取尽。平均手术时间90min，平均出血量50m1，术后平均住院时间8d。所有病例均无严重手术并发症。结论经皮。肾穿刺微造瘘取石术治疗上尿路结石具有创伤小、并发症少、疗效好、恢复快、结石清除率高等优点．值得推广应用．     

复杂性肾结石治疗方法的比较

目的：探讨复杂性肾结石的首选治疗方法。方法：分别应用ESWL、开放手术、经皮肾镜取石术（PCNL）及微创经皮肾镜取石术（MPCNL）治疗复杂性肾结石患者132例,并随访观察其疗效及并发症发生率。结果：采用ESWL治疗56例,3个月后结石排净率53．6％;采用开放手术治疗37冽,手术均获成功,结石排净率达96％;采用PCNI。治疗39例,3个月后结石排净率为92％。结论：PcNL＋MPCNL＋ESWL为复杂性。肾结石的首选治疗方法,可适合于绝大部分复杂性肾结石患者,其中ESWI。适用于无肾盂肾盏扩张的复杂性且硬度较低的肾结石。开放手术可作为其他治疗方法的适当补充术式。     

Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy, endourology and open surgery: the management and follow-up of 200 patients with urinary calculi

The management and follow up of 200 consecutive patients with renal and ureteric calculi are presented. The primary treatment of 185 (92.5%) was by extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy (ESWL), of whom three (1.6)%) with large calculi underwent percutaneous nephrolithotripsy (PCNL) prior to ESWL as a planned combined procedure. Twelve (6%) were treated by PCNL or ureterorenoscopy (URS) as their definitive treatment and three (1.5%) by conventional open renal and ureteric surgery. The average in-patient stay was 3.8 days and most returned to normal activity within one day of discharge. Of the 185 patients 102 (55%) required no analgesia after treatment by ESWL, 29 (15.6%) required parenteral analgesia and the rest were comfortable with oral non-narcotic medication. Thirty (16%) required auxillary treatment by percutaneous nephrostomy (PCN), PCNL and URS following ESWL for obstructive complications from stone particles. Two required further ESWL and one PCNL at three months for large fragments. Overall, open surgery was required for only 1% of renal calculi and 13% of ureteric stones. These results are consistant with the extensive West German experience confirming that most urinary calculi are now best managed by ESWL and endoscopic techniques. Where these facilities are available open surgery should only be necessary for less than 5% of upper urinary tract stones.     

小儿肾结石的ESWL和PCNL治疗

目的　总结小儿肾结石ESWL和经皮微造瘘输尿管镜取石术 (mini PCNL)治疗经验。　方法　回顾性分析 10 5例小儿肾结石诊治资料 ,男 72例、女 3 3例 ,平均年龄 8.7岁。其中伴尿路畸形 2 1例 (2 0 .0 % )。ESWL治疗 68例 ;mini PCNL治疗 3 3例 ,4例联合ESWL ;改行开放手术 4例。　结果　 68例ESWL治疗 92次 ,结石完全排空 57例 (83 .8% ) ,1次ESWL治疗成功 47例 (69.1% ) ,2次治疗 18例 (2 6.5% ) ,3次治疗 2例 (4.4% ) ;2例石街经输尿管镜治疗成功。 3 3例mini PCNL治疗者 ,一期PCNL成功 2 4例 (72 .7% ) ,二期PCNL治疗 9例 (2 7.3 % ) ;3例伴肾盂输尿管连接部梗阻者同时行顺行肾盂输尿管内切开术 ,一期结石清除率 2 4例 (72 .7% ) ,二期结石清除率 2 9例(87.9% ) ,联合ESWL 4例 ,总结石清除率为 97.0 %。 4例开放手术中 2例同时行肾盂输尿管成形术 ,1例多发结石术后有残余结石。　结论　ESWL是治疗小儿肾结石安全、有效的首选方法 ;选择PCNL治疗应根据结石和设备技术情况 ,联合ESWL成功率更高     

孤立肾并复杂性结石的治疗选择

目的探讨孤立肾并复杂性结石的处理方式,提高其治疗的有效性和安全性。方法总结42例孤立肾并复杂性结石的治疗经验。其中先天性4例(10％)、后天原因38例(90％);左侧16例(38％)、右侧26例(62％)。均为铸形或鹿角状、多发性结石,8例合并输尿管结石,6例因急性梗阻性无尿入院;铸形或鹿角状结石首选体外震波碎石(ESWL)后经皮肾镜取石(PCNL)治疗,多发性结石先行PCNL后ESWL处理,部分病例配合腔内碎石。结果36例(86％)经ESWL及PCNL联合治疗获愈,11例PCNL术中辅以腔内碎石,6例梗阻性无尿者急诊ESWL或腔内碎石后12h内恢复排尿;6例(14％)因肾盂输尿管畸形、梗阻改行开放手术,2例继发反复感染需长期肾造瘘。37例获随访6～18个月,32例(86％)肾功能良好、5例(14％)存在肾功能不全,4例(11％)结石复发。结论联合应用ESWL及PCNL可安全有效地清除多数孤立肾的复杂性结石;肾性梗阻性无尿者行急诊ESWL是必要的,对输尿管下段梗阻性结石可首选腔内碎石;伴肾盂明显畸形或输尿管连接部严重狭窄者以选择开放手术为宜。     

Percutaneous nephroscopic with holmium laser and ultrasound lithotripsy for complicated renal calculi

The aim of this work is to validate the clinical efficacy of the high-power holmium:YAG laser with percutaneous nephrolithotripsy (PCNL) in combination with ultrasound lithotripsy for complicated renal calculi. From November 2006 to December 2007, 60 patients with complicated renal calculi were treated with PCNL, where an F24 standard renal access tract was established by percutaneous renal puncture under the guidance of B-mode ultrasound, and stones were fragmented and cleared by high-power holmium laser in combination with ultrasound under an F20.8 nephroscope. Of the 60 patients with complicated renal calculi, 20 were complete staghorn calculi and 30 were partial staghorn calculi, of which six patients were accompanied with renal insufficiency; two were solitary calculi, and eight were caliceal diverticular calculi. Calculi were removed by one attempt in 49 patients and by two attempts in 11 patients; through one tract in 50 patients and through two and three tracts in ten patients. The stone-free rate was 81.7%. No injury to the pleura and abdominal organs occurred during the intraoperative puncture. No postoperative blood transfusion was needed in any patient, nor did fever and secondary hemorrhage occur. The mean operation duration was 98 min (range, 60–150 min), and the mean lithotripsy time was 45 min (range, 30–85 min). Additional postoperative extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) was performed on six patients. High-power holmium laser PCNL in combination with ultrasound lithotripsy is safe, effective, and minimally invasive, with a high stone-free rate, especially for complicated renal calculi.     

软镜钬激光治疗上尿路结石的技巧及疗效分析

目的研究输尿管软镜钬激光治疗上尿路结石的操作技巧及疗效分析。 方法选择2014年7月至2015年9月收治的46例输尿管软镜钬激光碎石病例。结石直径10～25 mm。术前常规放置输尿管支架1周,术中输尿管硬镜探查患侧输尿管,导入软镜输送鞘,Olympus F7.5输尿管软镜碎石。若推送鞘无法插入,可直接插入输尿管软镜。术后1 d泌尿系统X线平片(KUB) 检查,了解碎石及输尿管支架情况;术后28 d复查KUB或双肾CT平扫,评估碎石效果。 结果术前常规放置双J管1周后输尿管硬镜探查,可降低输尿管严重损伤的风险,有利于放置较大的软镜输送鞘。低能量、高频率的激光碎石,可将结石粉末化,增加排石率。软镜总进镜成功率95.6% (44/46 ),钬激光碎石成功率95.4%(42/44 ),2例患者无法进镜改经皮肾镜碎石。4周后结石清除率为90.5% (38/42)。3例残余结石经体外碎石后治愈。总的结石清除率为93.2%(41/44)。手术时间60～155 min,平均76 min。无一例发生严重并发症。 结论输尿管软镜钬激光碎石是治疗直径10～25 mm肾和输尿管上段结石的安全有效的方法,也可以作为体外冲击波碎石失败和经皮肾镜碎石术后残留结石的治疗选择。     

Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy of distal ureteral calculi

To date, the use of extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy (ESWL) has been limited to renal calculi and ureteral calculi above the pelvic brim. Modifying the position of the patient on the support of the Dornier lithotripter HM3, we were able to localize and treat distal ureteral calculi. Until April 1986, 43 patients with stones in the lower ureter underwent contact-free lithotripsy. Treatment was successful in 39 patients (90%), 2 of these requiring 2 sessions. In 4 patients treatment failed and stone removal was accomplished using ureteroscopy or open surgery. No complications or adverse side effects were encountered in the whole series. ESWL is now the method of choice for the treatment of distal ureteral calculi in our department.     

微创经皮肾镜气压弹道碎石术治疗上尿路结石(附706例报告)

目的:探讨与评价微创经皮肾镜气压弹道碎石治疗肾脏与输尿管上段结石的方法与疗效。方法:采用微创经皮肾镜下气压弹道碎石上尿路结石706例。结果:1999年9月～2005年8月,采用Ⅰ期、Ⅱ期或分步微创经皮肾镜手术成功处理706例上尿路结石,其中包括鹿角形结石、多发性肾结石、ESWL治疗失败、孤立肾结石、开放取石手术后复发、输尿管上段结石,肾结石清除率91.6%,输尿管结石清除率98.4%;随访1～12个月,无严重手术并发症发生。结论:微创经皮肾镜气压弹道碎石术治疗上尿路结石具有微创损伤、恢复快、并发症少、安全高效、结石清除率高的优点。     

输尿管镜钬激光技术治疗输尿管结石合并息肉(附75例报告)

目的 探讨输尿管镜钬激光技术对输尿管结石合并息肉的治疗效果.方法 2007年9月～ 2012年4月,对75例输尿管结石合并息肉行输尿管镜钬激光治疗.结石位于输尿管上段18例,中段38例,下段19例;结石长径0.6 ～1.7 cm,平均1.1 cm.术中50例息肉未行任何处理,10例息肉仅限于结石表面烧灼,切除息肉15例并送病检.结果 69例一次碎石成功;3例结石上移至肾盂术后1周体外冲击波碎石治疗;2例输尿管上段扭曲折叠进镜失败改经皮肾镜术:1例术中输尿管穿孔出血改开放取石.手术时间20～ 95 min,平均43 min.术后住院时间2～10 d,平均5d.67例术后随访6～12个月,B超或静脉肾盂造影检查64例肾积水消失,输尿管通畅,未见明显结石残留,3例输尿管狭窄,均为术中处理息肉者.结论 输尿管镜钬激光技术治疗输尿管中下段结石合并息肉具有良好的疗效,不影响手术视野和碎石操作的息肉无需处理.     

Multimodal management of urolithiasis in renal transplantation

OBJECTIVE: To report the largest single series of renal transplant patients (adults and children) with urolithiasis, assess the risk factors associated with urolithiasis in renal transplant recipients, and report the outcome of the multimodal management by endourological and open procedures. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The records of all patients undergoing renal transplantation between 1977 and 2003 were reviewed. In all, 2085 patients had a renal transplant at our centre and 21 (17 adults and four children) developed urinary tract calculi. Their mode of presentation, investigations, treatments, complications and outcomes were recorded. Investigations included one or more of the following; ultrasonography (US), plain abdominal X-ray, intravenous urography, nephrostogram and computed tomography. Management of these calculi involved extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL), flexible ureteroscopy and in situ lithotripsy, percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL), open pyelolithotomy and open cystolitholapaxy. RESULTS: Thirteen patients had renal calculi, seven had ureteric calculi and one had bladder calculi. The incidence of urolithiasis was 21/2085 (1.01%) in the series. Urolithiasis was incidentally discovered on routine US in six patients, six presented with oliguria or anuria, including one with acute renal failure, four with a painful graft, three with haematuria, one with sepsis secondary to obstruction and infection and in one, urolithiasis was found after failure to remove a stent. Ten patients (63%) had an identifiable metabolic cause for urolithiasis, two by obstruction, two stent-related, one secondary to infection and in six no cause was identifiable. Thirteen required more than one treatment method; 13 (69%) were treated by ESWL, eight of whom required multiple sessions; eight required ureteric stent insertion before a second procedure and four required a nephrostomy tube to relieve obstruction. Two patients had flexible ureteroscopy and stone extraction, three had a PCNL and one had open cystolithotomy. PCNL failed in one patient who subsequently had successful open pyelolithotomy. All patients were rendered stone-free when different treatments were combined. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of urolithiasis in renal transplant patients is low. There is a high incidence of metabolic causes and therefore renal transplant patients with urolithiasis should undergo comprehensive metabolic screening. Management of these patients requires a multidisciplinary approach by renal physicians, transplant surgeons and urologists.     

局麻下输尿管镜钬激光碎石术治疗输尿管结石86例临床分析

目的 探讨局麻下输尿管镜钬激光碎石术治疗输尿管结石的有效性及安全性.方法 回顾性分析2008年5月～2010年5月收治的在局麻下应用输尿管镜钬激光碎石术治疗输尿管结石86例患者的临床资料.所有患者均有轻～中度肾积水,18例合并结石远端输尿管狭窄,19例合并单纯息肉,25例合并息肉包裹结石,13例为体外冲击波碎石(ESW...     

肾鹿角形结石的3种治疗方法比较

目的：总结肾鹿角形结石的治疗经验。方法：应用体外冲击波碎石(ESWL)，开放手术，经皮肾镜取石术(PCNL)，治疗鹿角形结石102例．并随访其疗效及并发症的发生率。结果：EWSL57例，3个月后结石排净率86％；开放手术36例．手术均获成功，无石率达92％；PCNL9例，3个月后结石排净率为89％。结论：PCNL加ESWL为首选方法，ESWL适用于无肾盂肾盏扩张的部分鹿角形结石．开放手术可作为适当的补充术式。     

输尿管镜钬激光联合两重双J管引流术处理ESWL治疗失败的输尿管结石

目的：评价输尿管镜钬激光碎石联合腔内两重双J管引流术处理ESWL治疗失败输尿管结石的临床疗效,并探讨其影响因素。方法：2005年1月～2010年6月对ESWL失败的21例输尿管结石患者行输尿管镜钬激光碎石术,碎石后置入两根双J管,术后常规留置2～4周后拔除。结石合并息肉形成的13例患者均同期采用钬激光汽化切割息肉。结果：21例输尿管结石行钬激光碎石成功率达95．2%（20／21）,手术时间10～70min,平均（40．4±10．3）min;术后住院时间1～7天,平均（3．1土1．2）天。结论：输尿管镜钬激光碎石联合腔内两重双J管引流术处理ESWL治疗失败输尿管结石是安全可行的,保证结石清除率的同时不增加并发症发生率。